De his ergo per ordinem considerandum est. Et primo, de homicidio, per quod maxime nocetur proximo. Et circa hoc quaeruntur octo. We must therefore consider these points in due order, and in the first place we shall consider murder whereby a man inflicts the greatest injury on his neighbor. Under this head there are eight points of inquiry: Primo, utrum occidere animalia bruta, vel etiam plantas, sit peccatum. (1) Whether it is a sin to kill dumb animals or even plants? Secundo, utrum occidere peccatorem sit licitum. (2) Whether it is lawful to kill a sinner? Tertio, utrum hoc liceat privatae personae, vel solum publicae. (3) Whether this is lawful to a private individual, or to a public person only? Quarto, utrum hoc liceat clerico. (4) Whether this is lawful to a cleric? Quinto, utrum liceat alicui occidere seipsum. (5) Whether it is lawful to kill oneself? Sexto, utrum liceat occidere hominem iustum. (6) Whether it is lawful to kill a just man? Septimo, utrum liceat alicui occidere hominem seipsum defendendo. (7) Whether it is lawful to kill a man in self-defense? Octavo, utrum homicidium casuale sit peccatum mortale. (8) Whether accidental homicide is a mortal sin? Articulus 1 Article 1 Utrum occidere quaecumque viventia sit illicitum Whether it is unlawful to kill any living thing? Ad primum sic proceditur. Videtur quod occidere quaecumque viventia sit illicitum. Dicit enim apostolus, ad Rom. XIII, qui ordinationi Dei resistit, ipse sibi damnationem acquirit. Sed per ordinationem divinae providentiae omnia viventia conservantur, secundum illud Psalm., qui producit in montibus faenum, et dat iumentis escam ipsorum. Ergo mortificare quaecumque viventia videtur esse illicitum. Objection 1: It would seem unlawful to kill any living thing. For the Apostle says (Rom 13:2): They that resist the ordinance of God purchase to themselves damnation. Now Divine providence has ordained that all living things should be preserved, according to Ps. 146:8, 9, Who maketh grass to grow on the mountains . . . Who giveth to beasts their food. Therefore it seems unlawful to take the life of any living thing. Praeterea, homicidium est peccatum ex eo quod homo privatur vita. Sed vita communis est omnibus animalibus et plantis. Ergo eadem ratione videtur esse peccatum occidere bruta animalia et plantas. Obj. 2: Further, murder is a sin because it deprives a man of life. Now life is common to all animals and plants. Hence for the same reason it is apparently a sin to slay dumb animals and plants. Praeterea, in lege divina non determinatur specialis poena nisi peccato. Sed occidenti ovem vel bovem alterius statuitur poena determinata in lege divina, ut patet Exod. XXII. Ergo occisio brutorum animalium est peccatum. Obj. 3: Further, in the Divine law a special punishment is not appointed save for a sin. Now a special punishment had to be inflicted, according to the Divine law, on one who killed another man’s ox or sheep (Exod 22:1). Therefore the slaying of dumb animals is a sin. Sed contra est quod Augustinus dicit, in I de Civ. Dei, cum audimus, non occides, non accipimus hoc dictum esse de fructetis, quia nullus eis est sensus, nec de irrationalibus animalibus, quia nulla nobis ratione sociantur. Restat ergo ut de homine intelligamus quod dictum est, non occides. On the contrary, Augustine says (De Civ. Dei i, 20): When we hear it said, ‘Thou shalt not kill,’ we do not take it as referring to trees, for they have no sense, nor to irrational animals, because they have no fellowship with us. Hence it follows that the words, ‘Thou shalt not kill’ refer to the killing of a man. Respondeo dicendum quod nullus peccat ex hoc quod utitur re aliqua ad hoc ad quod est. In rerum autem ordine imperfectiora sunt propter perfectiora, sicut etiam in generationis via natura ab imperfectis ad perfecta procedit. Et inde est quod sicut in generatione hominis prius est vivum, deinde animal, ultimo autem homo; ita etiam ea quae tantum vivunt, ut plantae, sunt communiter propter omnia animalia, et animalia sunt propter hominem. Et ideo si homo utatur plantis ad utilitatem animalium, et animalibus ad utilitatem hominum, non est illicitum, ut etiam per philosophum patet, in I Polit. I answer that, There is no sin in using a thing for the purpose for which it is. Now the order of things is such that the imperfect are for the perfect, even as in the process of generation nature proceeds from imperfection to perfection. Hence it is that just as in the generation of a man there is first a living thing, then an animal, and lastly a man, so too things, like the plants, which merely have life, are all alike for animals, and all animals are for man. Wherefore it is not unlawful if man use plants for the good of animals, and animals for the good of man, as the Philosopher states (Polit. i, 3). Inter alios autem usus maxime necessarius esse videtur ut animalia plantis utantur in cibum, et homines animalibus, quod sine mortificatione eorum fieri non potest. Et ideo licitum est et plantas mortificare in usum animalium, et animalia in usum hominum, ex ipsa ordinatione divina, dicitur enim Gen. I, ecce, dedi vobis omnem herbam et universa ligna, ut sint vobis in escam et cunctis animantibus. Et Gen. IX dicitur, omne quod movetur et vivit, erit vobis in cibum. Now the most necessary use would seem to consist in the fact that animals use plants, and men use animals, for food, and this cannot be done unless these be deprived of life: wherefore it is lawful both to take life from plants for the use of animals, and from animals for the use of men. In fact this is in keeping with the commandment of God Himself: for it is written (Gen 1:29, 30): Behold I have given you every herb . . . and all trees . . . to be your meat, and to all beasts of the earth: and again (Gen 9:3): Everything that moveth and liveth shall be meat to you. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod ex ordinatione divina conservatur vita animalium et plantarum non propter seipsam, sed propter hominem. Unde ut Augustinus dicit, in I de Civ. Dei, iustissima ordinatione creatoris et vita et mors eorum nostris usibus subditur. Reply Obj. 1: According to the Divine ordinance the life of animals and plants is preserved not for themselves but for man. Hence, as Augustine says (De Civ. Dei i, 20), by a most just ordinance of the Creator, both their life and their death are subject to our use. Ad secundum dicendum quod animalia bruta et plantae non habent vitam rationalem, per quam a seipsis agantur, sed semper aguntur quasi ab alio, naturali quodam impulsu. Et hoc est signum quod sunt naturaliter serva, et aliorum usibus accommodata. Reply Obj. 2: Dumb animals and plants are devoid of the life of reason whereby to set themselves in motion; they are moved, as it were by another, by a kind of natural impulse, a sign of which is that they are naturally enslaved and accommodated to the uses of others. Ad tertium dicendum quod ille qui occidit bovem alterius peccat quidem, non quia occidit bovem, sed quia damnificat hominem in re sua. Unde non continetur sub peccato homicidii, sed sub peccato furti vel rapinae. Reply Obj. 3: He that kills another’s ox, sins, not through killing the ox, but through injuring another man in his property. Wherefore this is not a species of the sin of murder but of the sin of theft or robbery. Articulus 2 Article 2 Utrum sit licitum occidere homines peccatores Whether it is lawful to kill sinners? Ad secundum sic proceditur. Videtur quod non sit licitum occidere homines peccatores. Dominus enim, Matth. XIII, in parabola, prohibuit extirpare zizania, qui sunt filii nequam, ut ibidem dicitur. Sed omne quod est prohibitum a Deo est peccatum. Ergo occidere peccatorem est peccatum. Objection 1: It would seem unlawful to kill men who have sinned. For our Lord in the parable (Matt 13) forbade the uprooting of the cockle which denotes wicked men according to a gloss. Now whatever is forbidden by God is a sin. Therefore it is a sin to kill a sinner. Praeterea, iustitia humana conformatur iustitiae divinae. Sed secundum divinam iustitiam peccatores ad poenitentiam reservantur, secundum illud Ezech. XVIII, nolo mortem peccatoris, sed ut convertatur et vivat. Ergo videtur esse omnino iniustum quod peccatores occidantur. Obj. 2: Further, human justice is conformed to Divine justice. Now according to Divine justice sinners are kept back for repentance, according to Ezech. 33:11, I desire not the death of the wicked, but that the wicked turn from his way and live. Therefore it seems altogether unjust to kill sinners. Praeterea, illud quod est secundum se malum nullo bono fine fieri licet, ut patet per Augustinum, in libro contra mendacium, et per philosophum, in II Ethic. Sed occidere hominem secundum se est malum, quia ad omnes homines debemus caritatem habere; amicos autem volumus vivere et esse, ut dicitur in IX Ethic. Ergo nullo modo licet hominem peccatorem interficere. Obj. 3: Further, it is not lawful, for any good end whatever, to do that which is evil in itself, according to Augustine (Contra Mendac. vii) and the Philosopher (Ethic. ii, 6). Now to kill a man is evil in itself, since we are bound to have charity towards all men, and we wish our friends to live and to exist, according to Ethic. ix, 4. Therefore it is nowise lawful to kill a man who has sinned. Sed contra est quod dicitur Exod. XXII, maleficos non patieris vivere; et in Psalm., in matutino interficiebam omnes peccatores terrae. On the contrary, It is written (Exod 22:18): Wizards thou shalt not suffer to live; and (Ps 100:8): In the morning I put to death all the wicked of the land. Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut dictum est, licitum est occidere animalia bruta inquantum ordinantur naturaliter ad hominum usum, sicut imperfectum ordinatur ad perfectum. Omnis autem pars ordinatur ad totum ut imperfectum ad perfectum. Et ideo omnis pars naturaliter est propter totum. Et propter hoc videmus quod si saluti totius corporis humani expediat praecisio alicuius membri, puta cum est putridum et corruptivum aliorum, laudabiliter et salubriter abscinditur. Quaelibet autem persona singularis comparatur ad totam communitatem sicut pars ad totum. Et ideo si aliquis homo sit periculosus communitati et corruptivus ipsius propter aliquod peccatum, laudabiliter et salubriter occiditur, ut bonum commune conservetur, modicum enim fermentum totam massam corrumpit, ut dicitur I ad Cor. V. I answer that, As stated above (A. 1), it is lawful to kill dumb animals, insofar as they are naturally directed to man’s use, as the imperfect is directed to the perfect. Now every part is directed to the whole, as imperfect to perfect, wherefore every part is naturally for the sake of the whole. For this reason we observe that if the health of the whole body demands the excision of a member, through its being decayed or infectious to the other members, it will be both praiseworthy and advantageous to have it cut away. Now every individual person is compared to the whole community, as part to whole. Therefore if a man be dangerous and infectious to the community, on account of some sin, it is praiseworthy and advantageous that he be killed in order to safeguard the common good, since a little leaven corrupteth the whole lump (1 Cor 5:6). Ad primum ergo dicendum quod dominus abstinendum mandavit ab eradicatione zizaniorum ut tritico parceretur, idest bonis. Quod quidem fit quando non possunt occidi mali quin simul occidantur et boni, vel quia latent inter bonos; vel quia habent multos sequaces, ita quod sine bonorum periculo interfici non possunt; ut Augustinus dicit, contra Parmen. Unde dominus docet magis esse sinendum malos vivere, et ultionem reservandum usque ad extremum iudicium, quam quod boni simul occidantur. Quando vero ex occisione malorum non imminet periculum bonis, sed magis tutela et salus, tunc licite possunt mali occidi. Reply Obj. 1: Our Lord commanded them to forbear from uprooting the cockle in order to spare the wheat, i.e., the good. This occurs when the wicked cannot be slain without the good being killed with them, either because the wicked lie hidden among the good, or because they have many followers, so that they cannot be killed without danger to the good, as Augustine says (Contra Parmen. iii, 2). Wherefore our Lord teaches that we should rather allow the wicked to live, and that vengeance is to be delayed until the last judgment, rather than that the good be put to death together with the wicked. When, however, the good incur no danger, but rather are protected and saved by the slaying of the wicked, then the latter may be lawfully put to death. Ad secundum dicendum quod Deus, secundum ordinem suae sapientiae, quandoque statim peccatores occidit, ad liberationem bonorum; quandoque autem eis poenitendi tempus concedit; secundum quod ipse novit suis electis expedire. Et hoc etiam humana iustitia imitatur pro posse, illos enim qui sunt perniciosi in alios, occidit; eos vero qui peccant aliis graviter non nocentes, ad poenitentiam reservat. Reply Obj. 2: According to the order of His wisdom, God sometimes slays sinners forthwith in order to deliver the good, whereas sometimes He allows them time to repent, according as He knows what is expedient for His elect. This also does human justice imitate according to its powers; for it puts to death those who are dangerous to others, while it allows time for repentance to those who sin without grievously harming others. Ad tertium dicendum quod homo peccando ab ordine rationis recedit, et ideo decidit a dignitate humana, prout scilicet homo est naturaliter liber et propter seipsum existens, et incidit quodammodo in servitutem bestiarum, ut scilicet de ipso ordinetur secundum quod est utile aliis; secundum illud Psalm., homo, cum in honore esset, non intellexit, comparatus est iumentis insipientibus, et similis factus est illis; et Prov. XI dicitur, qui stultus est serviet sapienti. Et ideo quamvis hominem in sua dignitate manentem occidere sit secundum se malum, tamen hominem peccatorem occidere potest esse bonum, sicut occidere bestiam, peior enim est malus homo bestia, et plus nocet, ut philosophus dicit, in I Polit. et in VII Ethic. Reply Obj. 3: By sinning man departs from the order of reason, and consequently falls away from the dignity of his manhood, insofar as he is naturally free, and exists for himself, and he falls into the slavish state of the beasts, by being disposed of according as he is useful to others. This is expressed in Ps. 48:21: Man, when he was in honor, did not understand; he hath been compared to senseless beasts, and made like to them, and Prov. 11:29: The fool shall serve the wise. Hence, although it be evil in itself to kill a man so long as he preserve his dignity, yet it may be good to kill a man who has sinned, even as it is to kill a beast. For a bad man is worse than a beast, and is more harmful, as the Philosopher states (Polit. i, 1 and Ethic. vii, 6). Articulus 3 Article 3 Utrum occidere hominem peccatorum liceat privatae personae Whether it is lawful for a private individual to kill a man who has sinned? Ad tertium sic proceditur. Videtur quod occidere hominem peccatorem liceat privatae personae. In lege enim divina nihil illicitum mandatur. Sed Exod. XXXII praecepit Moyses, occidat unusquisque proximum suum, fratrem et amicum suum, pro peccato vituli conflatilis. Ergo etiam privatis personis licet peccatorem occidere. Objection 1: It would seem lawful for a private individual to kill a man who has sinned. For nothing unlawful is commanded in the Divine law. Yet, on account of the sin of the molten calf, Moses commanded (Exod 32:27): Let every man kill his brother, and friend, and neighbor. Therefore it is lawful for private individuals to kill a sinner. Praeterea, homo propter peccatum bestiis comparatur, ut dictum est. Sed occidere bestiam sylvestrem, maxime nocentem, cuilibet privatae personae licet. Ergo, pari ratione, occidere hominem peccatorem. Obj. 2: Further, as stated above (A. 2, ad 3), man, on account of sin, is compared to the beasts. Now it is lawful for any private individual to kill a wild beast, especially if it be harmful. Therefore for the same reason, it is lawful for any private individual to kill a man who has sinned. Praeterea, laudabile est quod homo, etiam si sit privata persona, operetur quod est utile bono communi. Sed occisio maleficorum est utilis bono communi, ut dictum est. Ergo laudabile est si etiam privatae personae malefactores occidant. Obj. 3: Further, a man, though a private individual, deserves praise for doing what is useful for the common good. Now the slaying of evildoers is useful for the common good, as stated above (A. 2). Therefore it is deserving of praise if even private individuals kill evil-doers. Sed contra est quod Augustinus dicit, in I de Civ. Dei, qui sine aliqua publica administratione maleficum interfecerit, velut homicida iudicabitur, et tanto amplius quanto sibi potestatem a Deo non concessam usurpare non timuit. On the contrary, Augustine says (De Civ. Dei i): A man who, without exercising public authority, kills an evil-doer, shall be judged guilty of murder, and all the more, since he has dared to usurp a power which God has not given him.