Sed contra, nihil est expectandum a Deo nisi quod est bonum et licitum. Sed vindicta de hostibus est expectanda a Deo, dicitur enim Luc. XVIII, Deus non faciet vindictam electorum suorum clamantium ad se die ac nocte? Quasi diceret, immo faciet. Ergo vindicatio non est per se mala et illicita. On the contrary, We should look to God for nothing save what is good and lawful. But we are to look to God for vengeance on His enemies: for it is written (Luke 18:7): Will not God revenge His elect who cry to Him day and night? as if to say: He will indeed. Therefore vengeance is not essentially evil and unlawful. Respondeo dicendum quod vindicatio fit per aliquod poenale malum inflictum peccanti. Est ergo in vindicatione considerandus vindicantis animus. Si enim eius intentio feratur principaliter in malum illius de quo vindictam sumit, et ibi quiescat, est omnino illicitum, quia delectari in malo alterius pertinet ad odium, quod caritati repugnat, qua omnes homines debemus diligere. Nec aliquis excusatur si malum intendat illius qui sibi iniuste intulit malum, sicut non excusatur aliquis per hoc quod odit se odientem. Non enim debet homo in alium peccare, propter hoc quod ille peccavit prius in ipsum, hoc enim est vinci a malo, quod apostolus prohibet, Rom. XII, dicens, noli vinci a malo, sed vince in bono malum. I answer that, Vengeance consists in the infliction of a penal evil on one who has sinned. Accordingly, in the matter of vengeance, we must consider the mind of the avenger. For if his intention is directed chiefly to the evil of the person on whom he takes vengeance and rests there, then his vengeance is altogether unlawful: because to take pleasure in another’s evil belongs to hatred, which is contrary to the charity whereby we are bound to love all men. Nor is it an excuse that he intends the evil of one who has unjustly inflicted evil on him, as neither is a man excused for hating one that hates him: for a man may not sin against another just because the latter has already sinned against him, since this is to be overcome by evil, which was forbidden by the Apostle, who says (Rom 12:21): Be not overcome by evil, but overcome evil by good. Si vero intentio vindicantis feratur principaliter ad aliquod bonum, ad quod pervenitur per poenam peccantis, puta ad emendationem peccantis, vel saltem ad cohibitionem eius et quietem aliorum, et ad iustitiae conservationem et Dei honorem, potest esse vindicatio licita, aliis debitis circumstantiis servatis. If, however, the avenger’s intention be directed chiefly to some good, to be obtained by means of the punishment of the person who has sinned (for instance that the sinner may amend, or at least that he may be restrained and others be not disturbed, that justice may be upheld, and God honored), then vengeance may be lawful, provided other due circumstances be observed. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod ille qui secundum gradum sui ordinis vindictam exercet in malos, non usurpat sibi quod Dei est, sed utitur potestate sibi divinitus concessa, dicitur enim Rom. XIII, de principe terreno, quod Dei minister est, vindex in iram ei qui male agit. Si autem praeter ordinem divinae institutionis aliquis vindictam exerceat, usurpat sibi quod Dei est, et ideo peccat. Reply Obj. 1: He who takes vengeance on the wicked in keeping with his rank and position does not usurp what belongs to God but makes use of the power granted him by God. For it is written (Rom 13:4) of the earthly prince that he is God’s minister, an avenger to execute wrath upon him that doeth evil. If, however, a man takes vengeance outside the order of divine appointment, he usurps what is God’s and therefore sins. Ad secundum dicendum quod mali tolerantur a bonis in hoc quod ab eis proprias iniurias patienter sustinent, secundum quod oportet, non autem tolerant eos ut sustineant iniurias Dei et proximorum. Dicit enim Chrysostomus, super Matth., in propriis iniuriis esse quempiam patientem, laudabile est, iniurias autem Dei dissimulare nimis est impium. Reply Obj. 2: The good bear with the wicked by enduring patiently, and in due manner, the wrongs they themselves receive from them: but they do not bear with them as to endure the wrongs they inflict on God and their neighbor. For Chrysostom says: It is praiseworthy to be patient under our own wrongs, but to overlook God’s wrongs is most wicked. Ad tertium dicendum quod lex Evangelii est lex amoris. Ideo illis qui ex amore bonum operantur, qui soli proprie ad Evangelium pertinent, non est timor incutiendus per poenas, sed solum illis qui ex amore non moventur ad bonum, qui, etsi numero sint de Ecclesia, non tamen merito. Reply Obj. 3: The law of the Gospel is the law of love, and therefore those who do good out of love, and who alone properly belong to the Gospel, ought not to be terrorized by means of punishment, but only those who are not moved by love to do good, and who, though they belong to the Church outwardly, do not belong to it in merit. Ad quartum dicendum quod iniuria quae infertur personae alicui quandoque redundat in Deum et in Ecclesiam, et tunc debet aliquis propriam iniuriam ulcisci. Sicut patet de Elia, qui fecit ignem descendere super eos qui venerant ad ipsum capiendum, ut legitur IV Reg. I. Et similiter Elisaeus maledixit pueris eum irridentibus, ut habetur IV Reg. II. Et Silvester Papa excommunicavit eos qui eum in exilium miserunt, ut habetur XXIII, qu. IV. Inquantum vero iniuria in aliquem illata ad eius personam pertinet, debet eam tolerare patienter, si expediat. Huiusmodi enim praecepta patientiae intelligenda sunt secundum praeparationem animi, ut Augustinus dicit, in libro de Serm. Dom. in monte. Reply Obj. 4: Sometimes a wrong done to a person reflects on God and the Church: and then it is the duty of that person to avenge the wrong. For example, Elias made fire descend on those who were come to seize him (4 Kgs 1); likewise Eliseus cursed the boys that mocked him (4 Kgs 2); and Pope Sylverius excommunicated those who sent him into exile (XXIII, Q. iv, Cap. Guilisarius). But insofar as the wrong inflicted on a man affects his person, he should bear it patiently if this be expedient. For these precepts of patience are to be understood as referring to preparedness of the mind, as Augustine states (De Serm. Dom. in Monte i). Ad quintum dicendum quod quando tota multitudo peccat, est de ea vindicta sumenda vel quantum ad totam multitudinem, sicut Aegyptii submersi sunt in mari rubro persequentes filios Israel, ut habetur Exod. XIV, et sicut Sodomitae universaliter perierunt, vel quantum ad magnam multitudinis partem, sicut patet Exod. XXXII, in poena eorum qui vitulum adoraverunt. Reply Obj. 5: When the whole multitude sins, vengeance must be taken on them, either in respect of the whole multitude—thus the Egyptians were drowned in the Red Sea while they were pursuing the children of Israel (Exod 14), and the people of Sodom were entirely destroyed (Gen 19)—or as regards part of the multitude, as may be seen in the punishment of those who worshipped the calf. Quandoque vero, si speretur multorum correctio, debet severitas vindictae exerceri in aliquos paucos principaliores, quibus punitis ceteri terreantur, sicut dominus, Num. XXV, mandavit suspendi principes populi pro peccato multitudinis. Sometimes, however, if there is hope of many making amends, the severity of vengeance should be brought to bear on a few of the principals, whose punishment fills the rest with fear; thus the Lord (Num 25) commanded the princes of the people to be hanged for the sin of the multitude. Si autem non tota multitudo peccavit, sed pro parte, tunc, si possunt mali secerni a bonis, debet in eos vindicta exerceri, si tamen hoc fieri possit sine scandalo aliorum. Alioquin, parcendum est multitudini, et detrahendum severitati. Et eadem ratio est de principe, quem sequitur multitudo. Tolerandum enim est peccatum eius, si sine scandalo multitudinis puniri non posset, nisi forte esset tale peccatum principis quod magis noceret multitudini, vel spiritualiter vel temporaliter, quam scandalum quod exinde timeretur. On the other hand, if it is not the whole but only a part of the multitude that has sinned, then if the guilty can be separated from the innocent, vengeance should be wrought on them: provided, however, that this can be done without scandal to others; else the multitude should be spared and severity foregone. The same applies to the sovereign, whom the multitude follow. For his sin should be borne with, if it cannot be punished without scandal to the multitude: unless indeed his sin were such, that it would do more harm to the multitude, either spiritually or temporally, than would the scandal that was feared to arise from his punishment. Articulus 2 Article 2 Utrum vindicatio sit specialis virtus Whether vengeance is a special virtue? Ad secundum sic proceditur. Videtur quod vindicatio non sit specialis virtus ab aliis distincta. Sicut enim remunerantur boni pro his quae bene agunt, ita puniuntur mali pro his quae male agunt. Sed remuneratio bonorum non pertinet ad aliquam specialem virtutem, sed est actus commutativae iustitiae. Ergo, pari ratione, et vindicatio non debet poni specialis virtus. Objection 1: It seems that vengeance is not a special and distinct virtue. For just as the good are rewarded for their good deeds, so are the wicked punished for their evil deeds. Now the rewarding of the good does not belong to a special virtue, but is an act of commutative justice. Therefore in the same way vengeance should not be accounted a special virtue. Praeterea, ad actum illum non debet ordinari specialis virtus ad quem homo sufficienter disponitur per alias virtutes. Sed ad vindicandum mala sufficienter disponitur homo per virtutem fortitudinis et per zelum. Non ergo vindicatio debet poni specialis virtus. Obj. 2: Further, there is no need to appoint a special virtue for an act to which a man is sufficiently disposed by the other virtues. Now man is sufficiently disposed by the virtues of fortitude or zeal to avenge evil. Therefore vengeance should not be reckoned a special virtue. Praeterea, cuilibet speciali virtuti aliquod speciale vitium opponitur. Sed vindicationi non videtur opponi aliquod speciale vitium. Ergo non est specialis virtus. Obj. 3: Further, there is a special vice opposed to every special virtue. But seemingly no special vice is opposed to vengeance. Therefore it is not a special virtue. Sed contra est quod Tullius ponit eam partem iustitiae. On the contrary, Tully (De Invent. Rhet. ii) reckons it a part of justice. Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut philosophus dicit, in II Ethic., aptitudo ad virtutem inest nobis a natura, licet complementum virtutis sit per assuetudinem vel per aliquam aliam causam. Unde patet quod virtutes perficiunt nos ad prosequendum debito modo inclinationes naturales, quae pertinent ad ius naturale. Et ideo ad quamlibet inclinationem naturalem determinatam ordinatur aliqua specialis virtus. Est autem quaedam specialis inclinatio naturae ad removendum nocumenta, unde et animalibus datur vis irascibilis separatim a vi concupiscibili. Repellit autem homo nocumenta per hoc quod se defendit contra iniurias, ne ei inferantur, vel iam illatas iniurias ulciscitur, non intentione nocendi, sed intentione removendi nocumenta. Hoc autem pertinet ad vindicationem, dicit enim Tullius, in sua rhetorica, quod vindicatio est per quam vis aut iniuria, et omnino quidquid obscurum est, idest ignominiosum, defendendo aut ulciscendo propulsatur. Unde vindicatio est specialis virtus. I answer that, As the Philosopher states (Ethic. ii, 1), aptitude to virtue is in us by nature, but the complement of virtue is in us through habituation or some other cause. Hence it is evident that virtues perfect us so that we follow in due manner our natural inclinations, which belong to the natural right. Wherefore to every definite natural inclination there corresponds a special virtue. Now there is a special inclination of nature to remove harm, for which reason animals have the irascible power distinct from the concupiscible. Man resists harm by defending himself against wrongs, lest they be inflicted on him, or he avenges those which have already been inflicted on him, with the intention, not of harming, but of removing the harm done. And this belongs to vengeance, for Tully says (De Invent. Rhet. ii) that by vengeance we resist force, or wrong, and in general whatever is obscure (i.e., derogatory), either by self-defense or by avenging it. Therefore vengeance is a special virtue. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod sicut recompensatio debiti legalis pertinet ad iustitiam commutativam, recompensatio autem debiti moralis quod nascitur ex particulari beneficio exhibito, pertinet ad virtutem gratiae; ita etiam punitio peccatorum, secundum quod pertinet ad publicam iustitiam, est actus commutativae iustitiae; secundum autem quod pertinet ad immunitatem alicuius personae singularis, a qua iniuria propulsatur, pertinet ad virtutem vindicationis. Reply Obj. 1: Just as repayment of a legal debt belongs to commutative justice, and as repayment of a moral debt, arising from the bestowal of a particular favor, belongs to the virtue of gratitude, so too the punishment of sins, so far as it is the concern of public justice, is an act of commutative justice; while so far as it is concerned in defending the rights of the individual by whom a wrong is resisted, it belongs to the virtue of revenge. Ad secundum dicendum quod fortitudo disponit ad vindictam removendo prohibens, scilicet timorem periculi imminentis. Zelus autem, secundum quod importat fervorem amoris, importat primam radicem vindicationis, prout aliquis vindicat iniurias Dei vel proximorum, quas ex caritate reputat quasi suas. Cuiuslibet autem virtutis actus ex radice caritatis procedit, quia, ut Gregorius dicit, in quadam homilia, nihil habet viriditatis ramus boni operis, si non procedat ex radice caritatis. Reply Obj. 2: Fortitude disposes to vengeance by removing an obstacle thereto, namely, fear of an imminent danger. Zeal, as denoting the fervor of love, signifies the primary root of vengeance, insofar as a man avenges the wrong done to God and his neighbor, because charity makes him regard them as his own. Now every act of virtue proceeds from charity as its root, since, according to Gregory (Hom. xxvii in Ev.), there are no green leaves on the bough of good works, unless charity be the root. Ad tertium dicendum quod vindicationi opponuntur duo vitia. Unum quidem per excessum, scilicet peccatum crudelitatis vel saevitiae, quae excedit mensuram in puniendo. Aliud autem est vitium quod consistit in defectu, sicut cum aliquis est nimis remissus in puniendo, unde dicitur Prov. XIII, qui parcit virgae, odit filium suum. Virtus autem vindicationis consistit ut homo secundum omnes circumstantias debitam mensuram in vindicando conservet. Reply Obj. 3: Two vices are opposed to vengeance: one by way of excess, namely, the sin of cruelty or brutality, which exceeds the measure in punishing: while the other is a vice by way of deficiency and consists in being remiss in punishing, wherefore it is written (Prov 13:24): He that spareth the rod hateth his son. But the virtue of vengeance consists in observing the due measure of vengeance with regard to all the circumstances. Articulus 3 Article 3 Utrum vindicatio debeat fieri per poenas apud homines consuetas Whether vengeance should be wrought by means of punishments customary among men? Ad tertium sic proceditur. Videtur quod vindicatio non debeat fieri per poenas apud homines consuetas. Occisio enim hominis est quaedam eradicatio eius. Sed dominus mandavit, Matth. XIII, quod zizania, per quae significantur filii nequam, non eradicarentur. Ergo peccatores non sunt occidendi. Objection 1: It seems that vengeance should not be wrought by means of punishments customary among men. For to put a man to death is to uproot him. But our Lord forbade (Matt 13:29) the uprooting of the cockle, whereby the children of the wicked one are signified. Therefore sinners should not be put to death. Praeterea, quicumque mortaliter peccant, eadem poena videntur digni. Si ergo aliqui mortaliter peccantes morte puniuntur, videtur quod omnes tales deberent morte puniri. Quod patet esse falsum. Obj. 2: Further, all who sin mortally seem to be deserving of the same punishment. Therefore if some who sin mortally are punished with death, it seems that all such persons should be punished with death: and this is evidently false. Praeterea, cum aliquis pro peccato punitur manifeste, ex hoc peccatum eius manifestatur. Quod videtur esse nocivum multitudini, quae ex exemplo peccati sumit occasionem peccandi. Ergo videtur quod non sit poena mortis pro aliquo peccato infligenda. Obj. 3: Further, to punish a man publicly for his sin seems to publish his sin: and this would seem to have a harmful effect on the multitude, since the example of sin is taken by them as an occasion for sin. Therefore it seems that the punishment of death should not be inflicted for a sin. Sed contra est quod in lege divina his huiusmodi poenae determinantur, ut ex supra dictis patet. On the contrary, These punishments are fixed by the divine law as appears from what we have said above (I-II, Q. 105, A. 2). Respondeo dicendum quod vindicatio intantum licita est et virtuosa inquantum tendit ad cohibitionem malorum. Cohibentur autem aliqui a peccando, qui affectum virtutis non habent, per hoc quod timent amittere aliqua quae plus amant quam illa quae peccando adipiscuntur, alias timor non compesceret peccatum. Et ideo per subtractionem omnium quae homo maxime diligit, est vindicta de peccatis sumenda. Haec sunt autem quae homo maxime diligit, vitam, incolumitatem corporis, libertatem sui, et bona exteriora, puta divitias, patriam et gloriam. Et ideo, ut Augustinus refert, XXI de Civ. Dei, octo genera poenarum in legibus esse scribit Tullius, scilicet mortem, per quam tollitur vita; verbera et talionem (ut scilicet oculum pro oculo perdat), per quae amittit corporis incolumitatem; servitutem et vincula, per quae perdit libertatem; exilium, per quod perdit patriam; damnum, per quod perdit divitias; ignominiam, per quam perdit gloriam. I answer that, Vengeance is lawful and virtuous so far as it tends to the prevention of evil. Now some who are not influenced by motive of virtue are prevented from committing sin, through fear of losing those things which they love more than those they obtain by sinning, else fear would be no restraint to sin. Consequently vengeance for sin should be taken by depriving a man of what he loves most. Now the things which man loves most are life, bodily safety, his own freedom, and external goods such as riches, his country and his good name. Wherefore, according to Augustine’s reckoning (De Civ. Dei xxi), Tully writes that the laws recognize eight kinds of punishment: namely, death, whereby man is deprived of life; stripes, retaliation, or the loss of eye for eye, whereby man forfeits his bodily safety; slavery, and imprisonment, whereby he is deprived of freedom; exile whereby he is banished from his country; fines, whereby he is mulcted in his riches; ignominy, whereby he loses his good name. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod dominus prohibet eradicari zizania quando timetur ne simul cum eis eradicetur et triticum. Sed quandoque possunt eradicari mali per mortem non solum sine periculo, sed etiam cum magna utilitate bonorum. Et ideo in tali casu potest poena mortis peccatoribus infligi. Reply Obj. 1: Our Lord forbids the uprooting of the cockle, when there is fear lest the wheat be uprooted together with it. But sometimes the wicked can be uprooted by death, not only without danger, but even with great profit, to the good. Wherefore in such a case the punishment of death may be inflicted on sinners. Ad secundum dicendum quod omnes peccantes mortaliter digni sunt morte aeterna quantum ad futuram retributionem, quae est secundum veritatem divini iudicii. Sed poenae praesentis vitae sunt magis medicinales. Et ideo illis solis peccatis poena mortis infligitur quae in gravem perniciem aliorum cedunt. Reply Obj. 2: All who sin mortally are deserving of eternal death, as regards future retribution, which is in accordance with the truth of the divine judgment. But the punishments of this life are more of a medicinal character; wherefore the punishment of death is inflicted on those sins alone which conduce to the grave undoing of others. Ad tertium dicendum quod quando simul cum culpa innotescit et poena, vel mortis vel quaecumque alia quam homo horret, ex hoc ipso voluntas eius a peccando abstrahitur, quia plus terret poena quam alliciat exemplum culpae. Reply Obj. 3: The very fact that the punishment, whether of death or of any kind that is fearsome to man, is made known at the same time as the sin, makes man’s will averse to sin: because the fear of punishment is greater than the enticement of the example of sin. Articulus 4 Article 4 Utrum vindicta sit exercenda in eos qui involuntarie peccaverunt Whether vengeance should be taken on those who have sinned involuntarily? Ad quartum sic proceditur. Videtur quod vindicta sit exercenda in eos qui involuntarie peccaverunt. Voluntas enim unius non consequitur voluntatem alterius. Sed unus punitur pro alio, secundum illud Exod. XX, ego sum Deus Zelotes, visitans iniquitatem patrum in filios, in tertiam et quartam generationem. Unde et pro peccato Cham Chanaan, filius eius, maledictus est, ut habetur Gen. IX. Giezi etiam peccante, lepra transmittitur ad posteros, ut habetur IV Reg. V. Sanguis etiam Christi reddit poenae obnoxios successores Iudaeorum, qui dixerunt, sanguis eius super nos, et super filios nostros. Matth. XXVII, legitur etiam quod pro peccato Achar populus Israel traditus est in manus hostium, ut habetur Iosue VII. Et pro peccato filiorum Heli idem populus corruit in conspectu Philistinorum, ut habetur I Reg. IV. Ergo aliquis involuntarius est puniendus. Objection 1: It seems that vengeance should be taken on those who have sinned involuntarily. For the will of one man does not follow from the will of another. Yet one man is punished for another, according to Ex. 20:5, I am . . . God . . . jealous, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children, unto the third and fourth generation. Thus for the sin of Cham, his son Chanaan was cursed (Gen 9:25) and for the sin of Giezi, his descendants were struck with leprosy (4 Kgs 5). Again the blood of Christ lays the descendants of the Jews under the ban of punishment, for they said (Matt 27:25): His blood be upon us and upon our children. Moreover we read (Josue 7) that the people of Israel were delivered into the hands of their enemies for the sin of Achan, and that the same people were overthrown by the Philistines on account of the sin of the sons of Heli (1 Kgs 4). Therefore a person is to be punished without having deserved it voluntarily. Praeterea, illud solum est voluntarium quod est in potestate hominis. Sed quandoque poena infertur pro eo quod non est in eius potestate, sicut propter vitium leprae aliquis removetur ab administratione Ecclesiae; et propter paupertatem aut malitiam civium Ecclesia perdit cathedram episcopalem. Ergo non solum pro peccato voluntario vindicta infertur. Obj. 2: Further, nothing is voluntary except what is in a man’s power. But sometimes a man is punished for what is not in his power; thus a man is removed from the administration of the Church on account of being infected with leprosy; and a Church ceases to be an episcopal see on account of the depravity or evil of the people. Therefore vengeance is taken not only for voluntary sins. Praeterea, ignorantia causat involuntarium. Sed vindicta quandoque exercetur in aliquos ignorantes. Parvuli enim Sodomitarum, licet haberent ignorantiam invincibilem, cum parentibus perierunt, ut legitur Gen. XIX. Similiter etiam parvuli pro peccato Dathan et Abiron pariter cum eis absorpti sunt, ut habetur Num. XVI. Bruta etiam animalia, quae carent ratione, iussa sunt interfici pro peccato Amalecitarum, ut habetur I Reg. XV. Ergo vindicta quandoque exercetur in involuntarios. Obj. 3: Further, ignorance makes an act involuntary. Now vengeance is sometimes taken on the ignorant. Thus the children of the people of Sodom, though they were in invincible ignorance, perished with their parents (Gen 19). Again, for the sin of Dathan and Abiron their children were swallowed up together with them (Num 16). Moreover, dumb animals, which are devoid of reason, were commanded to be slain on account of the sin of the Amalekites (1 Kgs 15). Therefore vengeance is sometimes taken on those who have deserved it involuntarily. Praeterea, coactio maxime repugnat voluntario. Sed aliquis qui timore coactus aliquod peccatum committit, non propter hoc reatum poenae evadit. Ergo vindicta exercetur etiam in involuntarios. Obj. 4: Further, compulsion is most opposed to voluntariness. But a man does not escape the debt of punishment through being compelled by fear to commit a sin. Therefore vengeance is sometimes taken on those who have deserved it involuntarily.