Haec autem sunt quaecumque accidunt secundum naturam quidem, inordinatiorem tamen ea quae primi elementi corporum, circa locum maxime propinquum lationi astrorum; puta de lacte et cometis et ignitis et motis phantasmatibus. It is concerned with events that are natural, though their order is less perfect than that of the first of the elements of bodies. They take place in the region nearest to the motion of the stars. Such are the milky way, and comets, and the movements of meteors. Et quaecumque ponemus utique aeris esse communes passiones et aquae. It studies also all the affections we may call common to air and water, Adhuc autem terrae quaecumque partes, et species et passiones partium; ex quibus etiam de spiritibus et terraemotibus considerabimus omnes causas, et de omnibus quae fiunt secundum motus horum. In quibus haec quidem dubitabimus, haec autem attingemus aliquo modo. and the kinds and parts of the earth and the affections of its parts. These throw light on the causes of winds and earthquakes and all the consequences the motions of these kinds and parts involve. Of these things some puzzle us, while others admit of explanation in some degree. Adhuc autem de fulminum casu et typhonibus et incensionibus et aliis circularibus, quaecumque propter coagulationem accidunt passiones ipsorum corporum. Further, the inquiry is concerned with the falling of thunderbolts and with whirlwinds and fire-winds, and further, the recurrent affections produced in these same bodies by concretion. Pertranseuntes autem de his, speculabimur si quid possumus, secundum inductum modum, assignare de animalibus et plantis, universaliterque et singillatim. Fere enim, his dictis, finis utique factus erit omnis eius quae a principio nobis electionis. When the inquiry into these matters is concluded let us consider what account we can give, in accordance with the method we have followed, of animals and plants, both generally and in detail. When that has been done we may say that the whole of our original undertaking will have been carried out. 1. Sicut in rebus naturalibus nihil est perfectum dum est in potentia, sed solum tunc simpliciter perfectum est, quando est in ultimo actu; quando vero medio modo se habens fuerit inter puram potentiam et purum actum, tunc est quidem secundum quid perfectum, non tamen simpliciter; sic et circa scientiam accidit. Scientia autem quae habetur de re tantum in universali, non est scientia completa secundum ultimum actum, sed est medio modo se habens inter puram potentiam et ultimum actum. Nam aliquis sciens aliquid in universali, scit quidem aliquid eorum actu quae sunt in propria ratione eius: alia vero sciens in universali non scit actu, sed solum in potentia. Puta, qui cognoscit hominem solum secundum quod est animal, solum scit sic partem definitionis hominis in actu, scilicet genus eius: differentias autem constitutivas speciei nondum scit actu, sed potentia tantum. Unde manifestum est quod complementum scientiae requirit quod non sistatur in communibus, sed procedatur usque ad species: individua enim non cadunt sub consideratione artis; non enim eorum est intellectus, sed sensus. 1. Just as in natural things nothing is perfect so long as it is in potency, but is perfect absolutely only when it is in ultimate act, and just as, when it is midway between pure potency and pure act, it is perfect in a qualified sense but yet not absolutely so too with science. Now the science which one has of a thing only in a universal way is not science complete according to ultimate act, but is midway between pure potency and ultimate act. For someone who knows something in a universal way, does indeed know something in act of the things that are included in its proper notion; but he who thus knows in a universal way, knows other things, not actually, but in potency only. For example, one who knows man only accordingly as he is animal, thus knows in act only a part of the definition of man, namely, the genus; but the differences constitutive of the species he does not yet know in act but potentially only. Consequently, it is plain that the completion of science requires that one not stop at what is common but go on to the species (individuals not falling under the consideration of art, since of them there is not intellectual understanding but sense knowledge). 2. Quia igitur Aristoteles in libro De generatione determinavit de transmutationibus elementorum in communi, necessarium fuit ad complementum scientiae naturalis, determinare de speciebus transmutationum quae accidunt circa elementa: et de his determinat in hoc libro, qui intitulatur Meteorologicorum. Est igitur intentio eius in hoc libro determinare de transmutationibus quae accidunt circa elementa, secundum singulas species. Et ad manifestandam suam intentionem, praemittit prooemium. In quo tria facit: 2. For this reason, since Aristotle in the book, On Generation, has determined concerning the transmutation of elements in common, it was necessary, for the completion of natural science, to determine concerning the species of transmutations that affect the elements. And he determines concerning these in this book, entitled Meteorology. It is his intention, therefore, in this book to determine concerning the transmutations that occur with respect to the elements, according to their several species. And in order to indicate his intention he presents an introduction, in which he does three things: primo enim enumerat ea de quibus tractatum est in libris scientiae naturalis praecedentibus hunc librum; first, he enumerates the things already treated in the books of natural science that precede this book; secundo manifestat de quibus in hoc libro sit agendum, ibi: reliqua autem pars huius etc.; second, he shows what is to be treated in this book, at there remains for consideration (338a25); tertio ostendit de quibus in sequentibus libris restat agendum, ibi: pertranseuntes autem de his et cetera. third, he shows what remains to be discussed in books that follow, at when the inquiry into these matters (339a5). 3. Praecedunt autem hunc librum, secundum ordinem, in scientia naturali tres libri. Unde tria facit. 3. Three books precede the present one, according to order, in natural science. Hence he does three things. Primo ponit de quo sit actum in libro Physicorum. In quo quidem, quantum ad duos primos libros eius, agitur de causis naturae: et hoc tangit, concludens ex determinatione praecedentium librorum, cum dicit: de primis quidem igitur causis naturae; ut intelligantur primae causae naturae prima principia, quae sunt materia, forma et privatio, et etiam quatuor genera causarum, scilicet materia, forma, agens et finis, in sequentibus autem libris Physicorum agitur de motu in generali: et hoc est quod subdit: et de omni motu naturali. First, he states what was treated in the book of Physics. As to the first two books, it is question of the causes of nature. This he alludes to, concluding from what has been determined in the books preceding [the Meteorology], when he says: we have already spoken about the first causes of nature, meaning by first causes of nature, the first principles, which are matter, form and privation, as well as the four genera of causes, namely, matter, form, agent and end. In the subsequent books of the Physics the discussion is of motion in general; hence he adds, and of every natural motion. Secundus scientiae naturalis liber est liber De caelo et mundo. In cuius prima parte, scilicet in duobus eius primis libris, agitur de caelo et stellis, quae moventur motu circulari: et quantum ad hoc dicit: adhuc autem de secundum superiorem lationem perornatis astris; perornatis, idest valde ornate dispositis, secundum superiorem lationem, idest secundum motum circularem, quo moventur omnia corpora caelestia. The second book of natural science is the book, On the Heavens, in the first part of which, i.e., in its first two books, the discussion is about the heaven and the stars, which are moved with circular motion. This he alludes to when he says: we have also discussed the superior movement of the well-appointed stars, meaning by well-appointed, very beautifully arranged, and by as to their superior motion, the circular motion by which all the heavenly bodies are moved. In secunda autem parte huius libri, scilicet tertio et quarto libro, determinat de numero elementorum et de motu locali eorum: et quantum ad hoc dicit: et de elementis corporalibus, quot et quae sint. Dicit autem elementa corporalia, ad differentiam primorum principiorum, scilicet materiae et formae, quae non sunt corpora, sed corporum elementa seu principia: ignis autem et aqua et terra corpora sunt, et sunt aliorum corporum elementa. In the second part of that book, i.e. in the third and fourth books, he determines concerning the number of elements and their local motion. Alluding to this he says: and about the bodily elements we have discussed their number and nature. He says bodily elements to distinguish them from the first principles, namely, matter and form, which are not bodies but the elements or principles of bodies, whereas fire and water and earth are bodies, and are the elements of other bodies. Tertius liber scientiae naturalis est liber De generatione: in quo determinat de permutatione elementorum in invicem, in secundo libro, et de generatione et corruptione in communi in primo libro. Et hoc tangit consequenter, cum dicit: et de ea quae invicem et cetera. The third book of natural science is the book, On Generation, wherein are treated the mutual transmutation of elements, in the second book; and generation and corruption in common, in the first book. This he subsequently alludes to when he says, and of things that are mutually transmutable. 4. Deinde cum dicit: reliqua autem pars huius etc., manifestat de quo sit in hoc agendum. Et circa hoc duo facit: 4. Then when he says, there remains for consideration (338a25), he shows what is to be discussed in the present book. About this he does two things: primo ponit nomen consuetum huius doctrinae; first, he gives the usual name for this body of doctrine; secundo enumerat ea quae in hac doctrina continentur. second, he enumerates the things contained in this doctrine. Dicit ergo primo quod reliqua pars huius methodi, idest scientiae naturalis, quam prae manibus habemus, restat adhuc consideranda, quam omnes priores philosophi vocabant meteorologiam, a meteoron, quod est excelsum vel elevatum, et logos, quod est sermo vel ratio: considerantur enim in hac doctrina ea quae in excelsis generantur, sicut stellae cadentes, stellae cometae, pluviae, nives, et alia huiusmodi. Quamvis et alia quaedam considerentur quae fiunt in imo, sicut fulmina, terraemotus, et alia huiusmodi: sed quia ea quae fiunt in alto, sunt mirabiliora et magis desiderata, ideo ab eis tota doctrina nomen accepit. He says therefore first that the remaining part of this method, i.e. of natural science, which we have before us, is still to be treated. [What is now to be considered] is what all the earlier philosophers called meteorology—from meteoron which means "on high" or "elevated," and from logos, which is a "statement" or "explanation"—for in it are considered the things generated on high, such as falling stars, comets, rain, snow, and so on. This does not mean that other things, produced in the lower regions, such as lightning, earthquakes and the like, will not be discussed; but, because things generated on high are more marvelous and more desired, it is from them that this whole doctrine takes its name. 5. Secundo ibi: haec autem sunt etc., enumerat ea de quibus in hac doctrina consideratur. Quae videntur in quatuor distingui. Quaedam enim sunt quae fiunt in loco supremo propinquo corpori caelesti: et haec primo tangit, cum dicit: haec autem sunt, scilicet de quibus adhuc restat considerandum, quaecumque accidunt quidem secundum naturam, sed inordinatam, et casualiter, ut quidam putabant. Natura tamen inordinatior non est natura illa quae est primi elementi corporum, idest corporis caelestis; quod dicitur elementum, quia est pars totius universi corporalis, licet non veniat in compositionem corporis mixti, sicut elementa. Est autem natura secundum quam haec accidunt, inordinatior natura caelestis corporis: quia ea quae sunt in caelesti corpore, semper similiter se habent, in huiusmodi autem transmutationibus inferiorum corporum, accidit multa varietas. Propter quam quidam crediderunt quod haec non a natura, sed a casu acciderent, non considerantes quod naturaliter fiunt non solum ea quae sunt semper, sed etiam quae sunt ut in pluribus. Haec, inquam, accidunt circa locum maxime propinquum lationi astrorum, idest astris circulariter motis. Et hoc ponit ad differentiam subsequentium. Et exemplificat, dicens: puta de lacte, idest de lacteo circulo qui Galaxia dicitur, et stellis quae cometae dicuntur, et phantasmatibus, idest apparitionibus, ignitis et motis, quae dicuntur stellae cadentes. 5. second, at it is concerned (338a26), he enumerates the things to be considered in this doctrine. These are seen to be divided into four groups. For there are some things that are produced in the highest region, nearest to the heavenly body. Such things are, namely, those concerning which it still remains to be considered, things that happen indeed according to nature, but not an ordered nature and, as some claimed, by chance. This more irregular nature is not, however, the nature which belongs to the first element of bodies, i.e., the celestial body, called element, because it is a part of the whole corporeal universe, although it does not enter into the composition of mixed bodies, as do the elements. The nature according to which these things occur is more unordered than the nature of the celestial body, since the things in the celestial body always behave in the same way, whereas in the transmutations affecting the lower bodies much variation occurs. It was on this account that some have believed that these occurred, not by nature, but by chance, failing to consider that there is produced by nature, not only those things which happen always, but also those which happen for the most part. These, I say, occur in the region nearest the carrying of the stars, i.e., the stars that are circularly moved. This he sets down to distinguish them from those that follow. As an example he mentions the milk, i.e., the milky circle called the "galaxy," and the stars called comets, and the phantoms, i.e. the apparitions, fiery and moving, called "falling stars" [meteors]. 6. Secundo cum dicit: et quaecumque ponemus etc., enumerat ea quae sub praedictis fiunt; scilicet quaecumque ponuntur esse passiones communes aeris et aquae, quia ex materia aquea in loco aeris generantur, vaporibus in aquam transmutatis. 6. second when he says, it studies also (338b24), he enumerates the things which take place under the foregoing; namely, all things that are posited as phenomena common to air and water—for they are produced from aqueous matter in the region of air, when vapors are changed into water. 7. Tertio cum dicit: adhuc autem terrae etc., enumerat ea quae in infimo sunt. Et dicit: adhuc autem oportet dicere de his quae sunt partes terrae, puta oriens, occidens, Septentrio, meridies; et quae sunt species, puta quod quaedam terra est calida et arenosa, quaedam frigida et calcata; et passiones partium terrae, puta quod quaedam est sulphurea, quaedam lapidosa, vel aliquo modo dissoluta. Ex quibus terrae rationibus considerabimus omnes causas spirituum, idest ventorum, quorum differentia attenditur secundum diversitatem terrae. Similiter de terraemotibus, quorum etiam causae assignantur ex diversa specie terrae; et de omnibus quae fiunt secundum motus horum, idest ventorum et terraemotuum. In quibus non omnia perfecte et secundum certitudinem tradere possumus, sed quaedam sub dubitatione relinquemus, ad utramque partem rationem inducentes: in quibusdam vero veritatem attingemus aliquo modo. 7. third when he says, and the kinds and parts of the earth (338b25), he enumerates what takes place in the lowest region and says: we must also talk about the parts of the earth, such as east, west, north, south, and about its kinds, for example, that some earth is hot and sandy, and some cold and compact, and about the properties of the parts of the earth, for example, that some are sulphurous, some stony or in some way broken up. From this knowledge of the earth we shall consider all the causes of spirits, i.e., winds, that differ according to the difference of the earth. Likewise, of earthquakes, the causes of which are attributed to the different type of earth, and of all things that take place according to the motions of these, i.e., of winds and earthquakes. In these matters we cannot explain everything perfectly and according to certitude, but shall let some things remain doubtful, giving reasons for both sides; but in others we shall to some degree reach the truth. 8. Quarto ibi: adhuc autem de fulminum casu etc., enumerat ea quae ex alto in infimum descendunt, ex ventis causata, dicens: adhuc autem dicemus de casu fulminum et typhonibus (qui dicuntur siphones), et incensionibus quae circa huiusmodi typhones accidunt, et aliis circularibus, quaecumque propter coagulationem accidunt passiones ipsorum corporum, scilicet elementorum. Dicit autem hoc, quia typhones ex materia compacta generantur cum quadam rotatione; et multa alia similia accidunt typhonibus, ex materia coagulatione compacta, cum quadam circulatione. Vel potest hoc referri ad iridem et halonem (idest circulum continentem solem et lunam et stellas), quae accidunt ex reverberatione radiorum ad aliquam materiam spissam. 8. Fourth, at further, the inquiry is concerned with the falling of thunderbolts (339a3), he enumerates the things which descend from on high as the result of winds. He says, therefore, that we shall also give an account of the falling of thunderbolts, and of whirlwinds (called siphons) and of the burnings that accompany such whirlwinds, and of other circular phenomena that occur from congealing and are properties of those bodies, namely, the elements. He says this because whirlwinds are generated from compacted matter set rotating, and many other like things happen to whirlwinds as a result of matter compacted and set in circular motion. Or this could refer to the rainbow and halo (i.e., the corona surrounding the sun and moon and stars) which result from rays rebounding from thick matter. 9. Deinde cum dicit: pertranseuntes autem de his etc., ponit de quo restat agendum in libris sequentibus. Et dicit quod postquam pertransiverimus de his quae dicta sunt, tunc speculabimur, secundum nostrum posse, modo inducto in libris praecedentibus, scilicet non tantum recitando opiniones aliorum sed etiam causas inquirendo, de animalibus et plantis, et in universali et secundum singulas species. Et tunc fere erit finis scientiae naturalis, quam a principio elegimus tradere. Dicit autem fere, quia non omnia naturalia ab homine cognosci possunt. 9. Then when he says, when the inquiry into these matters (339a5), he mentions what remains to be treated in the books to follow and says that after we shall have finished with these matters enumerated above, we shall to the best of our ability, according to the method employed in earlier books (i.e., not by merely reciting others' opinions, but by inquiring into causes, speculate about animals and plants, both in a universal way and according to the individual species. And that will be almost the end of the natural science which we chose to discuss from the beginning. He says almost, because not all natural things can be known by man. Lectio 2 Lecture 2 Principia naturalium transmutationum quas oportet in hoc libro considerare—quomodo se habeant adinvicem in causando Principles of the natural changes to be considered in this book; their relations to each other Hic igitur incipientes, dicamus de ipsis primo. After this introduction let us begin by discussing our immediate subject. Quoniam enim determinatum est prius a nobis unum quidem principium corporum ex quibus constat circulariter latorum corporum natura; alia autem quatuor corpora, propter quatuor principia; quorum duplicem esse dicimus motum, hunc quidem a medio, hunc autem ad medium; quatuor autem existentibus, igne et aere et aqua et terra, omnibus quidem his supereminens esse ignem, substans autem terram; duo autem quae ad ipsa his proportionaliter se habent, aerem quidem igni propinquiorem aliis, aquam autem terrae: qui itaque circa terram totus mundus, ex his constat corporibus, de quo accidentes passiones dicimus esse sumendum. We have already laid down that there is one physical element which makes up the system of the bodies that move in a circle, and besides this four bodies owing their existence to the four principles, the motion of these latter bodies being of two kinds: either from the centre or to the centre. These four bodies are fire, air, water, earth. Fire occupies the highest place among them all, earth the lowest, and two elements correspond to these in their relation to one another, air being nearest to fire, water to earth. The whole world surrounding the earth, then, the affections of which are our subject, is made up of these bodies. Est autem ex necessitate continuus iste superioribus lationibus, ut omnis ipsius virtus gubernetur inde. Unde enim motus principium omnibus, illam causam putandum primam. This world necessarily has a certain continuity with the upper motions: consequently all its power and order is derived from them. (For the originating principle of all motion is the first cause. Adhuc autem hic quidem perpetuus et finem non habens motus in loco, sed semper in fine: haec autem corpora omnia finitis distant locis abinvicem. Quare accidentium circa ipsum, ignem quidem et terram et syngenea his, ut in materiae specie eorum quae fiunt causas oportet putare (subiectum enim et patiens appellamus hoc modo): quod autem sic causa ut unde motus principium, eam quae semper motorum causandum virtutem. Besides, that element is eternal and its motion has no limit in space, but is always complete; whereas all these other bodies have separate regions which limit one another.) So we must treat fire and earth and the elements like them as the material causes of the events in this world (meaning by material what is subject and is affected), but must assign causality in the sense of the originating principle of motion to the influence of the eternally moving bodies. 10. Completo prooemio, in quo philosophus suam intentionem manifestavit, hic incipit procedere ad suum propositum ostendendum. Et dividitur in duas partes: 10. Having completed an introduction, in which the Philosopher has revealed his intention, he now begins to show his proposition. And this is divided into two parts: in prima resumit ea quae sunt necessaria ad cognoscendum principia transmutationum de quibus in hoc libro tractaturus est; in the first he restates facts necessary for knowing the principles of the transmutations to be treated in this book; in secunda incipit de eis tractare, ibi: resumentes igitur eas et cetera. in the second part he begins to treat of them, at let us first recall (339a33). Circa primum duo facit: About the first he does two things: primo enumerat principia harum transmutationum, et differentiam eorum adinvicem; first, he enumerates the principles of these transmutations and their difference from one another; secundo ostendit quomodo se habeant adinvicem in causando, ibi: est autem ex necessitate continuus et cetera. second, he shows how they are related to one another in causing, at this world necessarily has a certain continuity (339a21).