Sed contra, consilia sapientis amici magnam utilitatem afferunt; secundum illud Prov. XXVII, unguento et variis odoribus delectatur cor, et bonis amici consiliis anima dulcoratur. Sed Christus maxime est sapiens et amicus. Ergo eius consilia maximam utilitatem continent, et convenientia sunt. On the contrary, The counsels of a wise friend are of great use, according to Prov. (27:9): Ointment and perfumes rejoice the heart: and the good counsels of a friend rejoice the soul. But Christ is our wisest and greatest friend. Therefore His counsels are supremely useful and becoming. Respondeo dicendum quod haec est differentia inter consilium et praeceptum, quod praeceptum importat necessitatem, consilium autem in optione ponitur eius cui datur. Et ideo convenienter in lege nova, quae est lex libertatis, supra praecepta sunt addita consilia, non autem in veteri lege, quae erat lex servitutis. Oportet igitur quod praecepta novae legis intelligantur esse data de his quae sunt necessaria ad consequendum finem aeternae beatitudinis, in quem lex nova immediate introducit. Consilia vero oportet esse de illis per quae melius et expeditius potest homo consequi finem praedictum. I answer that, The difference between a counsel and a commandment is that a commandment implies obligation, whereas a counsel is left to the option of the one to whom it is given. Consequently in the New Law, which is the law of liberty, counsels are added to the commandments, and not in the Old Law, which is the law of bondage. We must therefore understand the commandments of the New Law to have been given about matters that are necessary to gain the end of eternal bliss, to which end the New Law brings us forthwith: but that the counsels are about matters that render the gaining of this end more assured and expeditious. Est autem homo constitutus inter res mundi huius et spiritualia bona, in quibus beatitudo aeterna consistit, ita quod quanto plus inhaeret uni eorum, tanto plus recedit ab altero, et e converso. Qui ergo totaliter inhaeret rebus huius mundi, ut in eis finem constituat, habens eas quasi rationes et regulas suorum operum, totaliter excidit a spiritualibus bonis. Et ideo huiusmodi inordinatio tollitur per praecepta. Sed quod homo totaliter ea quae sunt mundi abiiciat, non est necessarium ad perveniendum in finem praedictum, quia potest homo utens rebus huius mundi, dummodo in eis finem non constituat, ad beatitudinem aeternam pervenire. Sed expeditius perveniet totaliter bona huius mundi abdicando. Et ideo de hoc dantur consilia Evangelii. Now man is placed between the things of this world, and spiritual goods wherein eternal happiness consists: so that the more he cleaves to the one, the more he withdraws from the other, and conversely. Wherefore he that cleaves wholly to the things of this world, so as to make them his end, and to look upon them as the reason and rule of all he does, falls away altogether from spiritual goods. Hence this disorder is removed by the commandments. Nevertheless, for man to gain the end aforesaid, he does not need to renounce the things of the world altogether: since he can, while using the things of this world, attain to eternal happiness, provided he does not place his end in them: but he will attain more speedily thereto by giving up the goods of this world entirely: wherefore the evangelical counsels are given for this purpose. Bona autem huius mundi, quae pertinent ad usum humanae vitae, in tribus consistunt, scilicet in divitiis exteriorum bonorum, quae pertinent ad concupiscentiam oculorum; in deliciis carnis, quae pertinent ad concupiscentiam carnis; et in honoribus, quae pertinent ad superbiam vitae; sicut patet I Ioan. II. Haec autem tria totaliter derelinquere, secundum quod possibile est, pertinet ad consilia evangelica. In quibus etiam tribus fundatur omnis religio, quae statum perfectionis profitetur, nam divitiae abdicantur per paupertatem; deliciae carnis per perpetuam castitatem; superbia vitae per obedientiae servitutem. Now the goods of this world which come into use in human life, consist in three things: viz., in external wealth pertaining to the concupiscence of the eyes; carnal pleasures pertaining to the concupiscence of the flesh; and honors, which pertain to the pride of life, according to 1 Jn. 2:16: and it is in renouncing these altogether, as far as possible, that the evangelical counsels consist. Moreover, every form of the religious life that professes the state of perfection is based on these three: since riches are renounced by poverty; carnal pleasures by perpetual chastity; and the pride of life by the bondage of obedience. Haec autem simpliciter observata pertinent ad consilia simpliciter proposita. Sed observatio uniuscuiusque eorum in aliquo speciali casu, pertinet ad consilium secundum quid, scilicet in casu illo. Puta cum homo dat aliquam eleemosynam pauperi quam dare non tenetur, consilium sequitur quantum ad factum illud. Similiter etiam quando aliquo tempore determinato a delectationibus carnis abstinet ut orationibus vacet, consilium sequitur pro tempore illo. Similiter etiam quando aliquis non sequitur voluntatem suam in aliquo facto quod licite posset facere, consilium sequitur in casu illo, puta si benefaciat inimicis quando non tenetur, vel si offensam remittat cuius iuste posset exigere vindictam. Et sic etiam omnia consilia particularia ad illa tria generalia et perfecta reducuntur. Now if a man observe these absolutely, this is in accordance with the counsels as they stand. But if a man observe any one of them in a particular case, this is taking that counsel in a restricted sense, namely, as applying to that particular case. For instance, when anyone gives an alms to a poor man, not being bound so to do, he follows the counsels in that particular case. In like manner, when a man for some fixed time refrains from carnal pleasures that he may give himself to prayer, he follows the counsel for that particular time. And again, when a man follows not his will as to some deed which he might do lawfully, he follows the counsel in that particular case: for instance, if he do good to his enemies when he is not bound to, or if he forgive an injury of which he might justly seek to be avenged. In this way, too, all particular counsels may be reduced to these three general and perfect counsels. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod praedicta consilia, quantum est de se sunt omnibus expedientia, sed ex indispositione aliquorum contingit quod alicui expedientia non sunt, quia eorum affectus ad haec non inclinatur. Et ideo dominus, consilia evangelica proponens, semper facit mentionem de idoneitate hominum ad observantiam consiliorum. Dans enim consilium perpetuae paupertatis, Matth. XIX, praemittit, si vis perfectus esse; et postea subdit, vade et vende omnia quae habes. Similiter, dans consilium perpetuae castitatis, cum dixit, sunt eunuchi qui castraverunt seipsos propter regnum caelorum, statim subdit, qui potest capere, capiat. Et similiter apostolus, I ad Cor. VII, praemisso consilio virginitatis, dicit, porro hoc ad utilitatem vestram dico, non ut laqueum vobis iniiciam. Reply Obj. 1: The aforesaid counsels, considered in themselves, are expedient to all; but owing to some people being ill-disposed, it happens that some of them are inexpedient, because their disposition is not inclined to such things. Hence Our Lord, in proposing the evangelical counsels, always makes mention of man’s fitness for observing the counsels. For in giving the counsel of perpetual poverty (Matt 19:21), He begins with the words: If thou wilt be perfect, and then He adds: Go, sell all thou hast. In like manner when He gave the counsel of perpetual chastity, saying (Matt 19:12): There are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven, He adds straightway: He that can take, let him take it. And again, the Apostle (1 Cor 7:35), after giving the counsel of virginity, says: And this I speak for your profit; not to cast a snare upon you. Ad secundum dicendum quod meliora bona particulariter in singulis sunt indeterminata. Sed illa quae sunt simpliciter et absolute meliora bona in universali, sunt determinata. Ad quae etiam omnia illa particularia reducuntur, ut dictum est. Reply Obj. 2: The greater goods are not definitely fixed in the individual; but those which are simply and absolutely the greater good in general are fixed: and to these all the above particular goods may be reduced, as stated above. Ad tertium dicendum quod etiam consilium obedientiae dominus intelligitur dedisse in hoc quod dixit, et sequatur me; quem sequimur non solum imitando opera, sed etiam obediendo mandatis ipsius; secundum illud Ioan. X. Oves meae vocem meam audiunt, et sequuntur me. Reply Obj. 3: Even the counsel of obedience is understood to have been given by Our Lord in the words: And follow Me. For we follow Him not only by imitating His works, but also by obeying His commandments, according to Jn. 10:27: My sheep hear My voice . . . and they follow Me. Ad quartum dicendum quod ea quae de vera dilectione inimicorum, et similibus, dominus dicit Matth. V et Luc. VI, si referantur ad praeparationem animi, sunt de necessitate salutis, ut scilicet homo sit paratus benefacere inimicis, et alia huiusmodi facere, cum necessitas hoc requirat. Et ideo inter praecepta ponuntur. Sed ut aliquis hoc inimicis exhibeat prompte in actu, ubi specialis necessitas non occurrit, pertinet ad consilia particularia, ut dictum est. Illa autem quae ponuntur Matth. X, et Luc. IX, et X, fuerunt quaedam praecepta disciplinae pro tempore illo, vel concessiones quaedam, ut supra dictum est. Et ideo non inducuntur tanquam consilia. Reply Obj. 4: Those things which Our Lord prescribed about the true love of our enemies, and other similar sayings (Matt 5; Lk. 6), may be referred to the preparation of the mind, and then they are necessary for salvation; for instance, that man be prepared to do good to his enemies, and other similar actions, when there is need. Hence these things are placed among the precepts. But that anyone should actually and promptly behave thus towards an enemy when there is no special need, is to be referred to the particular counsels, as stated above. As to those matters which are set down in Mt. 10 and Lk. 9 and 10, they were either disciplinary commands for that particular time, or concessions, as stated above (A2, ad 3). Hence they are not set down among the counsels. De gratia Grace Quaestio 109 Question 109 De necessitate gratiae Of the Necessity of Grace Consequenter considerandum est de exteriori principio humanorum actuum, scilicet de Deo, prout ab ipso per gratiam adiuvamur ad recte agendum. Et primo, considerandum est de gratia Dei; secundo, de causa eius; tertio, de eius effectibus. We must now consider the exterior principle of human acts, i.e., God, insofar as, through grace, we are helped by Him to do right: and, first, we must consider the grace of God; second, its cause; third, its effects. Prima autem consideratio erit tripartita, nam primo considerabimus de necessitate gratiae; secundo, de ipsa gratia quantum ad eius essentiam; tertio, de eius divisione. The first point of consideration will be threefold: for we shall consider (1) The necessity of grace; (2) grace itself, as to its essence; (3) its division. Circa primum quaeruntur decem. Under the first head there are ten points of inquiry: Primo, utrum absque gratia possit homo aliquod verum cognoscere. (1) Whether without grace man can know anything? Secundo, utrum absque gratia Dei possit homo aliquod bonum facere vel velle. (2) Whether without God’s grace man can do or wish any good? Tertio, utrum homo absque gratia possit Deum diligere super omnia. (3) Whether without grace man can love God above all things? Quarto, utrum absque gratia possit praecepta legis observare. (4) Whether without grace man can keep the commandments of the Law? Quinto, utrum absque gratia possit mereri vitam aeternam. (5) Whether without grace he can merit eternal life? Sexto, utrum homo possit se ad gratiam praeparare sine gratia. (6) Whether without grace man can prepare himself for grace? Septimo, utrum homo sine gratia possit resurgere a peccato. (7) Whether without grace he can rise from sin? Octavo, utrum absque gratia possit homo vitare peccatum. (8) Whether without grace man can avoid sin? Nono, utrum homo gratiam consecutus possit, absque alio divino auxilio, bonum facere et vitare peccatum. (9) Whether man having received grace can do good and avoid sin without any further Divine help? Decimo, utrum possit perseverare in bono per seipsum. (10) Whether he can of himself persevere in good? Articulus 1 Article 1 Utrum homo sine gratia aliquod verum cognoscere possit Whether without grace man can know any truth? Ad primum sic proceditur. Videtur quod homo sine gratia nullum verum cognoscere possit. Quia super illud I Cor. XII, nemo potest dicere, dominus Iesus, nisi in spiritu sancto, dicit Glossa Ambrosii, omne verum, a quocumque dicatur, a spiritu sancto est. Sed Spiritus Sanctus habitat in nobis per gratiam. Ergo veritatem cognoscere non possumus sine gratia. Objection 1: It would seem that without grace man can know no truth. For, on 1 Cor. 12:3: No man can say, the Lord Jesus, but by the Holy Spirit, Ambrose’s gloss says: Every truth, by whomsoever spoken is from the Holy Spirit. Now the Holy Spirit dwells in us by grace. Therefore we cannot know truth without grace. Praeterea, Augustinus dicit, in I Soliloq., quod disciplinarum certissima talia sunt qualia illa quae a sole illustrantur ut videri possint; Deus autem ipse est qui illustrat; ratio autem ita est in mentibus ut in oculis est aspectus; mentis autem oculi sunt sensus animae. Sed sensus corporis, quantumcumque sit purus, non potest aliquod visibile videre sine solis illustratione. Ergo humana mens, quantumcumque sit perfecta, non potest ratiocinando veritatem cognoscere absque illustratione divina. Quae ad auxilium gratiae pertinet. Obj. 2: Further, Augustine says (Solil. i, 6) that the most certain sciences are like things lit up by the sun so as to be seen. Now God Himself is He Who sheds the light. And reason is in the mind as sight is in the eye. And the eyes of the mind are the senses of the soul. Now the bodily senses, however pure, cannot see any visible object, without the sun’s light. Therefore the human mind, however perfect, cannot, by reasoning, know any truth without Divine light: and this pertains to the aid of grace. Praeterea, humana mens non potest veritatem intelligere nisi cogitando; ut patet per Augustinum XIV de Trin. Sed apostolus dicit, II ad Cor. III, non sufficientes sumus aliquid cogitare a nobis, quasi ex nobis. Ergo homo non potest cognoscere veritatem per seipsum sine auxilio gratiae. Obj. 3: Further, the human mind can only understand truth by thinking, as is clear from Augustine (De Trin. xiv, 7). But the Apostle says (2 Cor 3:5): Not that we are sufficient to think anything of ourselves, as of ourselves; but our sufficiency is from God. Therefore man cannot, of himself, know truth without the help of grace. Sed contra est quod Augustinus dicit, in I Retract., non approbo quod in oratione dixi, Deus, qui non nisi mundos verum scire voluisti. Responderi enim potest multos etiam non mundos multa scire vera. Sed per gratiam homo mundus efficitur; secundum illud Psalmi l, cor mundum crea in me, Deus; et spiritum rectum innova in visceribus meis. Ergo sine gratia potest homo per seipsum veritatem cognoscere. On the contrary, Augustine says (Retract. i, 4): I do not approve having said in the prayer, O God, Who dost wish the sinless alone to know the truth; for it may be answered that many who are not sinless know many truths. Now man is cleansed from sin by grace, according to Ps. 50:12: Create a clean heart in me, O God, and renew a right spirit within my bowels. Therefore without grace man of himself can know truth. Respondeo dicendum quod cognoscere veritatem est usus quidam, vel actus, intellectualis luminis, quia secundum apostolum, ad Ephes. V, omne quod manifestatur, lumen est. Usus autem quilibet quendam motum importat, large accipiendo motum secundum quod intelligere et velle motus quidam esse dicuntur, ut patet per philosophum in III de anima. Videmus autem in corporalibus quod ad motum non solum requiritur ipsa forma quae est principium motus vel actionis; sed etiam requiritur motio primi moventis. Primum autem movens in ordine corporalium est corpus caeleste. Unde quantumcumque ignis habeat perfectum calorem, non alteraret nisi per motionem caelestis corporis. Manifestum est autem quod, sicut omnes motus corporales reducuntur in motum caelestis corporis sicut in primum movens corporale; ita omnes motus tam corporales quam spirituales reducuntur in primum movens simpliciter, quod est Deus. Et ideo quantumcumque natura aliqua corporalis vel spiritualis ponatur perfecta, non potest in suum actum procedere nisi moveatur a Deo. Quae quidem motio est secundum suae providentiae rationem; non secundum necessitatem naturae, sicut motio corporis caelestis. Non solum autem a Deo est omnis motio sicut a primo movente; sed etiam ab ipso est omnis formalis perfectio sicut a primo actu. Sic igitur actio intellectus, et cuiuscumque entis creati, dependet a Deo quantum ad duo, uno modo, inquantum ab ipso habet formam per quam agit; alio modo, inquantum ab ipso movetur ad agendum. I answer that, To know truth is a use or act of intellectual light, since, according to the Apostle (Eph 5:13): All that is made manifest is light. Now every use implies movement, taking movement broadly, so as to call thinking and willing movements, as is clear from the Philosopher (De Anima iii, 4). Now in corporeal things we see that for movement there is required not merely the form which is the principle of the movement or action, but there is also required the motion of the first mover. Now the first mover in the order of corporeal things is the heavenly body. Hence no matter how perfectly fire has heat, it would not bring about alteration, except by the motion of the heavenly body. But it is clear that as all corporeal movements are traced back to the motion of the heavenly body as to the first corporeal mover, so all movements, both corporeal and spiritual, are traced back to the simple First Mover, Who is God. And hence no matter how perfect a corporeal or spiritual nature is supposed to be, it cannot proceed to its act unless it be moved by God; but this motion is according to the plan of His providence, and not by necessity of nature, as the motion of the heavenly body. Now not only is every motion from God as from the First Mover, but all formal perfection is from Him as from the First Act. And thus the act of the intellect or of any created being whatsoever depends upon God in two ways: first, inasmuch as it is from Him that it has the form whereby it acts; second, inasmuch as it is moved by Him to act. Unaquaeque autem forma indita rebus creatis a Deo, habet efficaciam respectu alicuius actus determinati, in quem potest secundum suam proprietatem, ultra autem non potest nisi per aliquam formam superadditam, sicut aqua non potest calefacere nisi calefacta ab igne. Sic igitur intellectus humanus habet aliquam formam, scilicet ipsum intelligibile lumen, quod est de se sufficiens ad quaedam intelligibilia cognoscenda, ad ea scilicet in quorum notitiam per sensibilia possumus devenire. Altiora vero intelligibilia intellectus humanus cognoscere non potest nisi fortiori lumine perficiatur, sicut lumine fidei vel prophetiae; quod dicitur lumen gratiae, inquantum est naturae superadditum. Now every form bestowed on created things by God has power for a determined act, which it can bring about in proportion to its own proper endowment; and beyond which it is powerless, except by a superadded form, as water can only heat when heated by the fire. And thus the human understanding has a form, viz., intelligible light, which of itself is sufficient for knowing certain intelligible things, viz., those we can come to know through the senses. The human intellect cannot know higher intelligible things unless it be perfected by a stronger light, viz., the light of faith or prophecy which is called the light of grace, inasmuch as it is added to nature. Sic igitur dicendum est quod ad cognitionem cuiuscumque veri, homo indiget auxilio divino ut intellectus a Deo moveatur ad suum actum. Non autem indiget ad cognoscendam veritatem in omnibus, nova illustratione superaddita naturali illustrationi; sed in quibusdam, quae excedunt naturalem cognitionem. Et tamen quandoque Deus miraculose per suam gratiam aliquos instruit de his quae per naturalem rationem cognosci possunt, sicut et quandoque miraculose facit quaedam quae natura facere potest. Hence we must say that for the knowledge of any truth whatsoever man needs Divine help, that the intellect may be moved by God to its act. But he does not need a new light added to his natural light, in order to know the truth in all things, but only in some that surpass his natural knowledge. And yet at times God miraculously instructs some by His grace in things that can be known by natural reason, even as He sometimes brings about miraculously what nature can do. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod omne verum, a quocumque dicatur, est a spiritu sancto sicut ab infundente naturale lumen, et movente ad intelligendum et loquendum veritatem. Non autem sicut ab inhabitante per gratiam gratum facientem, vel sicut a largiente aliquod habituale donum naturae superadditum, sed hoc solum est in quibusdam veris cognoscendis et loquendis; et maxime in illis quae pertinent ad fidem, de quibus apostolus loquebatur. Reply Obj. 1: Every truth by whomsoever spoken is from the Holy Spirit as bestowing the natural light, and moving us to understand and speak the truth, but not as dwelling in us by sanctifying grace, or as bestowing any habitual gift superadded to nature. For this only takes place with regard to certain truths that are known and spoken, and especially in regard to such as pertain to faith, of which the Apostle speaks. Ad secundum dicendum quod sol corporalis illustrat exterius; sed sol intelligibilis, qui est Deus, illustrat interius. Unde ipsum lumen naturale animae inditum est illustratio Dei, qua illustramur ab ipso ad cognoscendum ea quae pertinent ad naturalem cognitionem. Et ad hoc non requiritur alia illustratio, sed solum ad illa quae naturalem cognitionem excedunt. Reply Obj. 2: The material sun sheds its light outside us; but the intelligible Sun, Who is God, shines within us. Hence the natural light bestowed upon the soul is God’s enlightenment, whereby we are enlightened to see what pertains to natural knowledge; and for this there is required no further knowledge, but only for such things as surpass natural knowledge.