Secundo, utrum actio hominis habeat quod sit bona vel mala, ex obiecto. (2) Whether the good or evil of a human action is derived from its object? Tertio, utrum hoc habeat ex circumstantia. (3) Whether it is derived from a circumstance? Quarto, utrum hoc habeat ex fine. (4) Whether it is derived from the end? Quinto, utrum aliqua actio hominis sit bona vel mala in sua specie. (5) Whether a human action is good or evil in its species? Sexto, utrum actus habeat speciem boni vel mali ex fine. (6) Whether an action has the species of good or evil from its end? Septimo, utrum species quae est ex fine, contineatur sub specie quae est ex obiecto, sicut sub genere, aut e converso. (7) Whether the species derived from the end is contained under the species derived from the object, as under its genus, or conversely? Octavo, utrum sit aliquis actus indifferens secundum suam speciem. (8) Whether any action is indifferent in its species? Nono, utrum aliquis actus sit indifferens secundum individuum. (9) Whether an individual action can be indifferent? Decimo, utrum aliqua circumstantia constituat actum moralem in specie boni vel mali. (10) Whether a circumstance places a moral action in the species of good or evil? Undecimo, utrum omnis circumstantia augens bonitatem vel malitiam, constituat actum moralem in specie boni vel mali. (11) Whether every circumstance that makes an action better or worse, places the moral action in the species of good or evil? Articulus 1 Article 1 Utrum omnis actio hominis sit bona, et aliqua sit mala Whether every human action is good, or are there evil actions? Ad primum sic proceditur. Videtur quod omnis actio hominis sit bona, et nulla sit mala. Dicit enim Dionysius, IV cap. de Div. Nom., quod malum non agit nisi virtute boni. Sed virtute boni non fit malum. Ergo nulla actio est mala. Objection 1: It would seem that every human action is good, and that none is evil. For Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv) that evil acts not, save in virtue of the good. But no evil is done in virtue of the good. Therefore no action is evil. Praeterea, nihil agit nisi secundum quod est actu. Non est autem aliquid malum secundum quod est actu, sed secundum quod potentia privatur actu, inquantum autem potentia perficitur per actum, est bonum, ut dicitur in IX Metaphys. Nihil ergo agit inquantum est malum, sed solum inquantum est bonum. Omnis ergo actio est bona, et nulla mala. Obj. 2: Further, nothing acts except insofar as it is in act. Now a thing is evil, not according as it is in act, but according as its potentiality is void of act; whereas insofar as its potentiality is perfected by act, it is good, as stated in Metaph. ix, 9. Therefore nothing acts insofar as it is evil, but only according as it is good. Therefore every action is good, and none is evil. Praeterea, malum non potest esse causa nisi per accidens, ut patet per Dionysium, IV cap. de Div. Nom. Sed omnis actionis est aliquis per se effectus. Nulla ergo actio est mala, sed omnis actio est bona. Obj. 3: Further, evil cannot be a cause, save accidentally, as Dionysius declares (Div. Nom. iv). But every action has some effect which is proper to it. Therefore no action is evil, but every action is good. Sed contra est quod dominus dicit, Ioan. III, omnis qui male agit, odit lucem. Est ergo aliqua actio hominis mala. On the contrary, Our Lord said (John 3:20): Every one that doth evil, hateth the light. Therefore some actions of man are evil. Respondeo dicendum quod de bono et malo in actionibus oportet loqui sicut de bono et malo in rebus, eo quod unaquaeque res talem actionem producit, qualis est ipsa. In rebus autem unumquodque tantum habet de bono, quantum habet de esse, bonum enim et ens convertuntur, ut in primo dictum est. Solus autem Deus habet totam plenitudinem sui esse secundum aliquid unum et simplex, unaquaeque vero res alia habet plenitudinem essendi sibi convenientem secundum diversa. Unde in aliquibus contingit quod quantum ad aliquid habent esse, et tamen eis aliquid deficit ad plenitudinem essendi eis debitam. Sicut ad plenitudinem esse humani requiritur quod sit quoddam compositum ex anima et corpore, habens omnes potentias et instrumenta cognitionis et motus, unde si aliquid horum deficiat alicui homini deficit ei aliquid de plenitudine sui esse. Quantum igitur habet de esse, tantum habet de bonitate, inquantum vero aliquid ei deficit de plenitudine essendi, intantum deficit a bonitate, et dicitur malum, sicut homo caecus habet de bonitate quod vivit, et malum est ei quod caret visu. Si vero nihil haberet de entitate vel bonitate, neque malum neque bonum dici posset. Sed quia de ratione boni est ipsa plenitudo essendi, si quidem alicui aliquid defuerit de debita essendi plenitudine, non dicetur simpliciter bonum, sed secundum quid, inquantum est ens, poterit tamen dici simpliciter ens et secundum quid non ens, ut in primo dictum est. Sic igitur dicendum est quod omnis actio, inquantum habet aliquid de esse, intantum habet de bonitate, inquantum vero deficit ei aliquid de plenitudine essendi quae debetur actioni humanae, intantum deficit a bonitate, et sic dicitur mala, puta si deficiat ei vel determinata quantitas secundum rationem, vel debitus locus, vel aliquid huiusmodi. I answer that, We must speak of good and evil in actions as of good and evil in things: because such as everything is, such is the act that it produces. Now in things, each one has so much good as it has being: since good and being are convertible, as was stated in the FP, Q5, AA1,3. But God alone has the whole plenitude of His Being in a certain unity: whereas every other thing has its proper fullness of being in a certain multiplicity. Wherefore it happens with some things, that they have being in some respect, and yet they are lacking in the fullness of being due to them. Thus the fullness of human being requires a compound of soul and body, having all the powers and instruments of knowledge and movement: wherefore if any man be lacking in any of these, he is lacking in something due to the fullness of his being. So that as much as he has of being, so much has he of goodness: while so far as he is lacking in goodness, and is said to be evil: thus a blind man is possessed of goodness inasmuch as he lives; and of evil, inasmuch as he lacks sight. That, however, which has nothing of being or goodness, could not be said to be either evil or good. But since this same fullness of being is of the very essence of good, if a thing be lacking in its due fullness of being, it is not said to be good simply, but in a certain respect, inasmuch as it is a being; although it can be called a being simply, and a non-being in a certain respect, as was stated in the FP, Q5, A1, ad 1. We must therefore say that every action has goodness, insofar as it has being; whereas it is lacking in goodness, insofar as it is lacking in something that is due to its fullness of being; and thus it is said to be evil: for instance if it lacks the quantity determined by reason, or its due place, or something of the kind. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod malum agit in virtute boni deficientis. Si enim nihil esset ibi de bono, neque esset ens, neque agere posset. Si autem non esset deficiens, non esset malum. Unde et actio causata est quoddam bonum deficiens, quod secundum quid est bonum, simpliciter autem malum. Reply Obj. 1: Evil acts in virtue of deficient goodness. For if there were nothing of good there, there would be neither being nor possibility of action. On the other hand if good were not deficient, there would be no evil. Consequently the action done is a deficient good, which is good in a certain respect, but simply evil. Ad secundum dicendum quod nihil prohibet aliquid esse secundum quid in actu, unde agere possit; et secundum aliud privari actu, unde causet deficientem actionem. Sicut homo caecus actu habet virtutem gressivam, per quam ambulare potest, sed inquantum caret visu, qui dirigit in ambulando, patitur defectum in ambulando, dum ambulat cespitando. Reply Obj. 2: Nothing hinders a thing from being in act in a certain respect, so that it can act; and in a certain respect deficient in act, so as to cause a deficient act. Thus a blind man has in act the power of walking, whereby he is able to walk; but inasmuch as he is deprived of sight he suffers a defect in walking by stumbling when he walks. Ad tertium dicendum quod actio mala potest habere aliquem effectum per se, secundum id quod habet de bonitate et entitate. Sicut adulterium est causa generationis humanae, inquantum habet commixtionem maris et feminae, non autem inquantum caret ordine rationis. Reply Obj. 3: An evil action can have a proper effect, according to the goodness and being that it has. Thus adultery is the cause of human generation, inasmuch as it implies union of male and female, but not inasmuch as it lacks the order of reason. Articulus 2 Article 2 Utrum actio habeat bonitatem vel malitiam ex obiecto Whether the good or evil of a man’s action is derived from its object? Ad secundum sic proceditur. Videtur quod actio non habeat bonitatem vel malitiam ex obiecto. Obiectum enim actionis est res. In rebus autem non est malum, sed in usu peccantium, ut Augustinus dicit in libro III de Doct. Christ. Ergo actio humana non habet bonitatem vel malitiam ex obiecto. Objection 1: It would seem that the good or evil of an action is not derived from its object. For the object of any action is a thing. But evil is not in things, but in the sinner’s use of them, as Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. iii, 12). Therefore the good or evil of a human action is not derived from their object. Praeterea, obiectum comparatur ad actionem ut materia. Bonitas autem rei non est ex materia, sed magis ex forma, quae est actus. Ergo bonum et malum non est in actibus ex obiecto. Obj. 2: Further, the object is compared to the action as its matter. But the goodness of a thing is not from its matter, but rather from the form, which is an act. Therefore good and evil in actions is not derived from their object. Praeterea, obiectum potentiae activae comparatur ad actionem sicut effectus ad causam. Sed bonitas causae non dependet ex effectu, sed magis e converso. Ergo actio humana non habet bonitatem vel malitiam ex obiecto. Obj. 3: Further, the object of an active power is compared to the action as effect to cause. But the goodness of a cause does not depend on its effect; rather is it the reverse. Therefore good or evil in actions is not derived from their object. Sed contra est quod dicitur Osee IX, facti sunt abominabiles, sicut ea quae dilexerunt. Fit autem homo Deo abominabilis propter malitiam suae operationis. Ergo malitia operationis est secundum obiecta mala quae homo diligit. Et eadem ratio est de bonitate actionis. On the contrary, It is written (Hos 9:10): They became abominable as those things which they loved. Now man becomes abominable to God on account of the malice of his action. Therefore the malice of his action is according to the evil objects that man loves. And the same applies to the goodness of his action. Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut dictum est, bonum et malum actionis, sicut et ceterarum rerum, attenditur ex plenitudine essendi vel defectu ipsius. Primum autem quod ad plenitudinem essendi pertinere videtur, est id quod dat rei speciem. Sicut autem res naturalis habet speciem ex sua forma, ita actio habet speciem ex obiecto; sicut et motus ex termino. Et ideo sicut prima bonitas rei naturalis attenditur ex sua forma, quae dat speciem ei, ita et prima bonitas actus moralis attenditur ex obiecto convenienti; unde et a quibusdam vocatur bonum ex genere; puta, uti re sua. Et sicut in rebus naturalibus primum malum est, si res generata non consequitur formam specificam, puta si non generetur homo, sed aliquid loco hominis; ita primum malum in actionibus moralibus est quod est ex obiecto, sicut accipere aliena. Et dicitur malum ex genere, genere pro specie accepto, eo modo loquendi quo dicimus humanum genus totam humanam speciem. I answer that, as stated above (A1) the good or evil of an action, as of other things, depends on its fullness of being or its lack of that fullness. Now the first thing that belongs to the fullness of being seems to be that which gives a thing its species. And just as a natural thing has its species from its form, so an action has its species from its object, as movement from its term. And therefore just as the primary goodness of a natural thing is derived from its form, which gives it its species, so the primary goodness of a moral action is derived from its suitable object: hence some call such an action good in its genus; for instance, to make use of what is one’s own. And just as, in natural things, the primary evil is when a generated thing does not realize its specific form (for instance, if instead of a man, something else be generated); so the primary evil in moral actions is that which is from the object, for instance, to take what belongs to another. And this action is said to be evil in its genus, genus here standing for species, just as we apply the term mankind to the whole human species. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod, licet res exteriores sint in seipsis bonae, tamen non semper habent debitam proportionem ad hanc vel illam actionem. Et ideo inquantum considerantur ut obiecta talium actionum, non habent rationem boni. Reply Obj. 1: Although external things are good in themselves, nevertheless they have not always a due proportion to this or that action. And so, inasmuch as they are considered as objects of such actions, they have not the quality of goodness. Ad secundum dicendum quod obiectum non est materia ex qua, sed materia circa quam, et habet quodammodo rationem formae, inquantum dat speciem. Reply Obj. 2: The object is not the matter of which (a thing is made), but the matter about which (something is done); and stands in relation to the act as its form, as it were, through giving it its species. Ad tertium dicendum quod non semper obiectum actionis humanae est obiectum activae potentiae. Nam appetitiva potentia est quodammodo passiva, inquantum movetur ab appetibili, et tamen est principium humanorum actuum. Neque etiam potentiarum activarum obiecta semper habent rationem effectus, sed quando iam sunt transmutata, sicut alimentum transmutatum est effectus nutritivae potentiae, sed alimentum nondum transmutatum comparatur ad potentiam nutritivam sicut materia circa quam operatur. Ex hoc autem quod obiectum est aliquo modo effectus potentiae activae, sequitur quod sit terminus actionis eius, et per consequens quod det ei formam et speciem, motus enim habet speciem a terminis. Et quamvis etiam bonitas actionis non causetur ex bonitate effectus, tamen ex hoc dicitur actio bona, quod bonum effectum inducere potest. Et ita ipsa proportio actionis ad effectum, est ratio bonitatis ipsius. Reply Obj. 3: The object of the human action is not always the object of an active power. For the appetitive power is, in a way, passive; insofar as it is moved by the appetible object; and yet it is a principle of human actions. Nor again have the objects of the active powers always the nature of an effect, but only when they are already transformed: thus food when transformed is the effect of the nutritive power; whereas food before being transformed stands in relation to the nutritive power as the matter about which it exercises its operation. Now since the object is in some way the effect of the active power, it follows that it is the term of its action, and consequently that it gives it its form and species, since movement derives its species from its term. Moreover, although the goodness of an action is not caused by the goodness of its effect, yet an action is said to be good from the fact that it can produce a good effect. Consequently the very proportion of an action to its effect is the measure of its goodness. Articulus 3 Article 3 Utrum actio sit bona vel mala ex circumstantia Whether man’s action is good or evil from a circumstance? Ad tertium sic proceditur. Videtur quod actio non sit bona vel mala ex circumstantia. Circumstantiae enim circumstant actum sicut extra ipsum existentes, ut dictum est. Sed bonum et malum sunt in ipsis rebus, ut dicitur in VI Metaphys. Ergo actio non habet bonitatem vel malitiam ex circumstantia. Objection 1: It would seem that an action is not good or evil from a circumstance. For circumstances stand around an action, as being outside it, as stated above (Q7, A1). But good and evil are in things themselves, as is stated in Metaph. vi, 4. Therefore an action does not derive goodness or malice from a circumstance. Praeterea, bonitas vel malitia actus maxime consideratur in doctrina morum. Sed circumstantiae, cum sint quaedam accidentia actuum, videntur esse praeter considerationem artis, quia nulla ars considerat id quod est per accidens, ut dicitur in VI Metaphys. Ergo bonitas vel malitia actionis non est ex circumstantia. Obj. 2: Further, the goodness or malice of an action is considered principally in the doctrine of morals. But since circumstances are accidents of actions, it seems that they are outside the scope of art: because no art takes notice of what is accidental (Metaph. vi, 2). Therefore the goodness or malice of an action is not taken from a circumstance. Praeterea, id quod convenit alicui secundum suam substantiam, non attribuitur ei per aliquod accidens. Sed bonum et malum convenit actioni secundum suam substantiam, quia actio ex suo genere potest esse bona vel mala, ut dictum est. Ergo non convenit actioni ex circumstantia quod sit bona vel mala. Obj. 3: Further, that which belongs to a thing, in respect of its substance, is not ascribed to it in respect of an accident. But good and evil belong to an action in respect of its substance; because an action can be good or evil in its genus as stated above (A2). Therefore an action is not good or bad from a circumstance. Sed contra est quod philosophus dicit, in libro Ethic., quod virtuosus operatur secundum quod oportet, et quando oportet, et secundum alias circumstantias. Ergo ex contrario vitiosus, secundum unumquodque vitium, operatur quando non oportet, ubi non oportet, et sic de aliis circumstantiis. Ergo actiones humanae secundum circumstantias sunt bonae vel malae. On the contrary, the Philosopher says (Ethic. ii, 3) that a virtuous man acts as he should, and when he should, and so on in respect of the other circumstances. Therefore, on the other hand, the vicious man, in the matter of each vice, acts when he should not, or where he should not, and so on with the other circumstances. Therefore human actions are good or evil according to circumstances.