Articulus 2 Article 2 Utrum Deus velit alia a se Whether God wills things apart from himself? Ad secundum sic proceditur. Videtur quod Deus non velit alia a se. Velle enim divinum est eius esse. Sed Deus non est aliud a se. Ergo non vult aliud a se. Objection 1: It seems that God does not will things apart from Himself. For the divine will is the divine existence. But God is not other than Himself. Therefore He does not will things other than Himself. Praeterea, volitum movet voluntatem, sicut appetibile appetitum, ut dicitur in III De Anima. Si igitur Deus velit aliquid aliud a se, movebitur eius voluntas ab aliquo alio, quod est impossibile. Obj. 2: Further, the willed moves the willer, as the appetible the appetite, as stated in De Anima iii, 54. If, therefore, God wills anything apart from Himself, His will must be moved by another; which is impossible. Praeterea, cuicumque voluntati sufficit aliquod volitum, nihil quaerit extra illud. Sed Deo sufficit sua bonitas, et voluntas eius ex ea satiatur. Ergo Deus non vult aliquid aliud a se. Obj. 3: Further, if what is willed suffices the willer, he seeks nothing beyond it. But His own goodness suffices God, and completely satisfies His will. Therefore God does not will anything apart from Himself. Praeterea, actus voluntatis multiplicatur secundum volita. Si igitur Deus velit se et alia a se, sequitur quod actus voluntatis eius sit multiplex, et per consequens eius esse, quod est eius velle. Hoc autem est impossibile. Non ergo vult alia a se. Obj. 4: Further, acts of will are multiplied in proportion to the number of their objects. If, therefore, God wills Himself and things apart from Himself, it follows that the act of His will is manifold, and consequently His existence, which is His will. But this is impossible. Therefore God does not will things apart from Himself. Sed contra est quod Apostolus dicit, I Thess. IV, haec est voluntas Dei, sanctificatio vestra. On the contrary, The Apostle says (1 Thess 4:3): This is the will of God, your sanctification. Respondeo dicendum quod Deus non solum se vult, sed etiam alia a se. Quod apparet a simili prius introducto. Res enim naturalis non solum habet naturalem inclinationem respectu proprii boni, ut acquirat ipsum cum non habet, vel ut quiescat in illo cum habet; sed etiam ut proprium bonum in alia diffundat, secundum quod possibile est. Unde videmus quod omne agens, inquantum est actu et perfectum, facit sibi simile. Unde et hoc pertinet ad rationem voluntatis, ut bonum quod quis habet, aliis communicet, secundum quod possibile est. Et hoc praecipue pertinet ad voluntatem divinam, a qua, per quandam similitudinem, derivatur omnis perfectio. Unde, si res naturales, inquantum perfectae sunt, suum bonum aliis communicant, multo magis pertinet ad voluntatem divinam, ut bonum suum aliis per similitudinem communicet, secundum quod possibile est. Sic igitur vult et se esse, et alia. Sed se ut finem, alia vero ut ad finem, inquantum condecet divinam bonitatem etiam alia ipsam participare. I answer that, God wills not only Himself, but other things apart from Himself. This is clear from the comparison which we made above (A. 1). For natural things have a natural inclination not only towards their own proper good, to acquire it if not possessed, and, if possessed, to rest therein; but also to spread abroad their own good among others, so far as possible. Hence we see that every agent, in so far as it is perfect and in act, produces its like. It pertains, therefore, to the nature of the will to communicate as far as possible to others the good possessed; and especially does this pertain to the divine will, from which all perfection is derived in some kind of likeness. Hence, if natural things, in so far as they are perfect, communicate their good to others, much more does it appertain to the divine will to communicate by likeness its own good to others as much as possible. Thus, then, He wills both Himself to be, and other things to be; but Himself as the end, and other things as ordained to that end, inasmuch as it befits the divine goodness that other things should be partakers therein. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod, licet divinum velle sit eius esse secundum rem, tamen differt ratione, secundum diversum modum intelligendi et significandi, ut ex superioribus patet. In hoc enim quod dico Deum esse, non importatur habitudo ad aliquid, sicut in hoc quod dico Deum velle. Et ideo, licet non sit aliquid aliud a se, vult tamen aliquid aliud a se. Reply Obj. 1: The divine will is God’s own existence essentially, yet they differ in aspect, according to the different ways of understanding them and expressing them, as is clear from what has already been said (Q. 13, A. 4). For when we say that God exists, no relation to any other object is implied, as we do imply when we say that God wills. Therefore, although He is not anything apart from Himself, yet He does will things apart from Himself. Ad secundum dicendum quod in his quae volumus propter finem, tota ratio movendi est finis, et hoc est quod movet voluntatem. Et hoc maxime apparet in his quae volumus tantum propter finem. Qui enim vult sumere potionem amaram, nihil in ea vult nisi sanitatem, et hoc solum est quod movet eius voluntatem. Secus autem est in eo qui sumit potionem dulcem, quam non solum propter sanitatem, sed etiam propter se aliquis velle potest. Unde, cum Deus alia a se non velit nisi propter finem qui est sua bonitas, ut dictum est, non sequitur quod aliquid aliud moveat voluntatem eius nisi bonitas sua. Et sic, sicut alia a se intelligit intelligendo essentiam suam, ita alia a se vult, volendo bonitatem suam. Reply Obj. 2: In things willed for the sake of the end, the whole reason for our being moved is the end, and this it is that moves the will, as most clearly appears in things willed only for the sake of the end. He who wills to take a bitter draught, in doing so wills nothing else than health; and this alone moves his will. It is different with one who takes a draught that is pleasant, which anyone may will to do, not only for the sake of health, but also for its own sake. Hence, although God wills things apart from Himself only for the sake of the end, which is His own goodness, it does not follow that anything else moves His will, except His goodness. So, as He understands things apart from Himself by understanding His own essence, so He wills things apart from Himself by willing His own goodness. Ad tertium dicendum quod ex hoc quod voluntati divinae sufficit sua bonitas, non sequitur quod nihil aliud velit, sed quod nihil aliud vult nisi ratione suae bonitatis. Sicut etiam intellectus divinus, licet sit perfectus ex hoc ipso quod essentiam divinam cognoscit, tamen in ea cognoscit alia. Reply Obj. 3: From the fact that His own goodness suffices the divine will, it does not follow that it wills nothing apart from itself, but rather that it wills nothing except by reason of its goodness. Thus, too, the divine intellect, though its perfection consists in its very knowledge of the divine essence, yet in that essence knows other things. Ad quartum dicendum quod, sicut intelligere divinum est unum, quia multa non videt nisi in uno; ita velle divinum est unum et simplex, quia multa non vult nisi per unum, quod est bonitas sua. Reply Obj. 4: As the divine intellect is one, as seeing the many only in the one, in the same way the divine will is one and simple, as willing the many only through the one, that is, through its own goodness. Articulus 3 Article 3 Utrum quidquid Deus vult, ex necessitate velit Whether whatever God wills, he wills necessarily? Ad tertium sic proceditur. Videtur quod quidquid Deus vult, ex necessitate velit. Omne enim aeternum est necessarium. Sed quidquid Deus vult, ab aeterno vult, alias, voluntas eius esset mutabilis. Ergo quidquid vult, ex necessitate vult. Objection 1: It seems that whatever God wills He wills necessarily. For everything eternal is necessary. But whatever God wills, He wills from eternity, for otherwise His will would be mutable. Therefore whatever He wills, He wills necessarily. Praeterea, Deus vult alia a se, inquantum vult bonitatem suam. Sed Deus bonitatem suam ex necessitate vult. Ergo alia a se ex necessitate vult. Obj. 2: Further, God wills things apart from Himself, inasmuch as He wills His own goodness. Now God wills His own goodness necessarily. Therefore He wills things apart from Himself necessarily. Praeterea, quidquid est Deo naturale, est necessarium, quia Deus est per se necesse esse, et principium omnis necessitatis, ut supra ostensum est. Sed naturale est ei velle quidquid vult, quia in Deo nihil potest esse praeter naturam, ut dicitur in V Metaphys. Ergo quidquid vult, ex necessitate vult. Obj. 3: Further, whatever belongs to the nature of God is necessary, for God is of Himself necessary being, and the principle of all necessity, as above shown (Q. 2, A. 3). But it belongs to His nature to will whatever He wills; since in God there can be nothing over and above His nature as stated in Metaph. v, 6. Therefore whatever He wills, He wills necessarily. Praeterea, non necesse esse, et possibile non esse, aequipollent. Si igitur non necesse est Deum velle aliquid eorum quae vult, possibile est eum non velle illud; et possibile est eum velle illud quod non vult. Ergo voluntas divina est contingens ad utrumlibet. Et sic imperfecta, quia omne contingens est imperfectum et mutabile. Obj. 4: Further, being that is not necessary, and being that is possible not to be, are one and the same thing. If, therefore, God does not necessarily will a thing that He wills, it is possible for Him not to will it, and therefore possible for Him to will what He does not will. And so the divine will is contingent upon one or the other of two things, and imperfect, since everything contingent is imperfect and mutable. Praeterea, ab eo quod est ad utrumlibet, non sequitur aliqua actio, nisi ab aliquo alio inclinetur ad unum, ut dicit Commentator, in II Physic. Si ergo voluntas Dei in aliquibus se habet ad utrumlibet, sequitur quod ab aliquo alio determinetur ad effectum. Et sic habet aliquam causam priorem. Obj. 5: Further, on the part of that which is indifferent to one or the other of two things, no action results unless it is inclined to one or the other by some other power, as the Commentator says in Phys. ii. If, then, the will of God is indifferent with regard to anything, it follows that His determination to act comes from another; and thus He has some cause prior to Himself. Praeterea, quidquid Deus scit, ex necessitate scit. Sed sicut scientia divina est eius essentia, ita voluntas divina. Ergo quidquid Deus vult, ex necessitate vult. Obj. 6: Further, whatever God knows, He knows necessarily. But as the divine knowledge is His essence, so is the divine will. Therefore whatever God wills, He wills necessarily. Sed contra est quod dicit Apostolus, Ephes. I, qui operatur omnia secundum consilium voluntatis suae. Quod autem operamur ex consilio voluntatis, non ex necessitate volumus. Non ergo quidquid Deus vult, ex necessitate vult. On the contrary, The Apostle says (Eph 1:11): Who worketh all things according to the counsel of His will. Now, what we work according to the counsel of the will, we do not will necessarily. Therefore God does not will necessarily whatever He wills. Respondeo dicendum quod necessarium dicitur aliquid dupliciter, scilicet absolute, et ex suppositione. Necessarium absolute iudicatur aliquid ex habitudine terminorum, utpote quia praedicatum est in definitione subiecti, sicut necessarium est hominem esse animal; vel quia subiectum est de ratione praedicati, sicut hoc est necessarium, numerum esse parem vel imparem. Sic autem non est necessarium Socratem sedere. Unde non est necessarium absolute, sed potest dici necessarium ex suppositione, supposito enim quod sedeat, necesse est eum sedere dum sedet. I answer that, There are two ways in which a thing is said to be necessary, namely, absolutely, and by supposition. We judge a thing to be absolutely necessary from the relation of the terms, as when the predicate forms part of the definition of the subject: thus it is absolutely necessary that man is an animal. It is the same when the subject forms part of the notion of the predicate; thus it is absolutely necessary that a number must be odd or even. In this way it is not necessary that Socrates sits: wherefore it is not necessary absolutely, though it may be so by supposition; for, granted that he is sitting, he must necessarily sit, as long as he is sitting. Circa divina igitur volita hoc considerandum est, quod aliquid Deum velle est necessarium absolute, non tamen hoc est verum de omnibus quae vult. Voluntas enim divina necessariam habitudinem habet ad bonitatem suam, quae est proprium eius obiectum. Unde bonitatem suam esse Deus ex necessitate vult; sicut et voluntas nostra ex necessitate vult beatitudinem. Sicut et quaelibet alia potentia necessariam habitudinem habet ad proprium et principale obiectum, ut visus ad colorem; quia de sui ratione est, ut in illud tendat. Alia autem a se Deus vult, inquantum ordinantur ad suam bonitatem ut in finem. Ea autem quae sunt ad finem, non ex necessitate volumus volentes finem, nisi sint talia, sine quibus finis esse non potest, sicut volumus cibum, volentes conservationem vitae; et navem, volentes transfretare. Non sic autem ex necessitate volumus ea sine quibus finis esse potest, sicut equum ad ambulandum, quia sine hoc possumus ire; et eadem ratio est in aliis. Unde, cum bonitas Dei sit perfecta, et esse possit sine aliis, cum nihil ei perfectionis ex aliis accrescat; sequitur quod alia a se eum velle, non sit necessarium absolute. Et tamen necessarium est ex suppositione, supposito enim quod velit, non potest non velle, quia non potest voluntas eius mutari. Accordingly as to things willed by God, we must observe that He wills something of absolute necessity: but this is not true of all that He wills. For the divine will has a necessary relation to the divine goodness, since that is its proper object. Hence God wills His own goodness necessarily, even as we will our own happiness necessarily, and as any other faculty has necessary relation to its proper and principal object, for instance the sight to color, since it tends to it by its own nature. But God wills things apart from Himself in so far as they are ordered to His own goodness as their end. Now in willing an end we do not necessarily will things that conduce to it, unless they are such that the end cannot be attained without them; as, we will to take food to preserve life, or to take a ship in order to cross the sea. But we do not necessarily will things without which the end is attainable, such as a horse for a journey which we can take on foot, for we can make the journey without one. The same applies to other means. Hence, since the goodness of God is perfect, and can exist without other things inasmuch as no perfection can accrue to Him from them, it follows that His willing things apart from Himself is not absolutely necessary. Yet it can be necessary by supposition, for supposing that He wills a thing, then He is unable not to will it, as His will cannot change. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod ex hoc quod Deus ab aeterno vult aliquid, non sequitur quod necesse est eum illud velle, nisi ex suppositione. Reply Obj. 1: From the fact that God wills from eternity whatever He wills, it does not follow that He wills it necessarily, except by supposition. Ad secundum dicendum quod, licet Deus ex necessitate velit bonitatem suam, non tamen ex necessitate vult ea quae vult propter bonitatem suam, quia bonitas eius potest esse sine aliis. Reply Obj. 2: Although God necessarily wills His own goodness, He does not necessarily will things willed on account of His goodness; for it can exist without other things. Ad tertium dicendum quod non est naturale Deo velle aliquid aliorum, quae non ex necessitate vult. Neque tamen innaturale, aut contra naturam, sed est voluntarium. Reply Obj. 3: It is not natural to God to will any of those other things that He does not will necessarily; and yet it is not unnatural or contrary to His nature, but voluntary. Ad quartum dicendum quod aliquando aliqua causa necessaria habet non necessariam habitudinem ad aliquem effectum, quod est propter defectum effectus, et non propter defectum causae. Sicut virtus solis habet non necessariam habitudinem ad aliquid eorum quae contingenter hic eveniunt, non propter defectum virtutis solaris, sed propter defectum effectus non necessario ex causa provenientis. Et similiter, quod Deus non ex necessitate velit aliquid eorum quae vult, non accidit ex defectu voluntatis divinae, sed ex defectu qui competit volito secundum suam rationem, quia scilicet est tale, ut sine eo esse possit perfecta bonitas Dei. Qui quidem defectus consequitur omne bonum creatum. Reply Obj. 4: Sometimes a necessary cause has a non-necessary relation to an effect; owing to a deficiency in the effect, and not in the cause. Even so, the sun’s power has a non-necessary relation to some contingent events on this earth, owing to a defect not in the solar power, but in the effect that proceeds not necessarily from the cause. In the same way, that God does not necessarily will some of the things that He wills, does not result from defect in the divine will, but from a defect belonging to the nature of the thing willed, namely, that the perfect goodness of God can be without it; and such defect accompanies all created good. Ad quintum ergo dicendum quod causa quae est ex se contingens, oportet quod determinetur ab aliquo exteriori ad effectum. Sed voluntas divina, quae ex se necessitatem habet, determinat seipsam ad volitum, ad quod habet habitudinem non necessariam. Reply Obj. 5: A naturally contingent cause must be determined to act by some external power. The divine will, which by its nature is necessary, determines itself to will things to which it has no necessary relation. Ad sextum dicendum quod, sicut divinum esse in se est necessarium, ita et divinum velle et divinum scire, sed divinum scire habet necessariam habitudinem ad scita, non autem divinum velle ad volita. Quod ideo est, quia scientia habetur de rebus, secundum quod sunt in sciente, voluntas autem comparatur ad res, secundum quod sunt in seipsis. Quia igitur omnia alia habent necessarium esse secundum quod sunt in Deo; non autem secundum quod sunt in seipsis, habent necessitatem absolutam ita quod sint per seipsa necessaria; propter hoc Deus quaecumque scit, ex necessitate scit, non autem quaecumque vult, ex necessitate vult. Reply Obj. 6: As the divine essence is necessary of itself, so is the divine will and the divine knowledge; but the divine knowledge has a necessary relation to the thing known; not the divine will to the thing willed. The reason for this is that knowledge is of things as they exist in the knower; but the will is directed to things as they exist in themselves. Since then all other things have necessary existence inasmuch as they exist in God; but no absolute necessity so as to be necessary in themselves, in so far as they exist in themselves; it follows that God knows necessarily whatever He wills, but does not will necessarily whatever He wills. Articulus 4 Article 4 Utrum voluntas Dei sit causa rerum Whether the will of God is the cause of things? Ad quartum sic proceditur. Videtur quod voluntas Dei non sit causa rerum. Dicit enim Dionysius, cap. IV de Div. Nom., sicut noster sol, non ratiocinans aut praeeligens, sed per ipsum esse illuminat omnia participare lumen ipsius valentia; ita et bonum divinum per ipsam essentiam omnibus existentibus immittit bonitatis suae radios. Sed omne quod agit per voluntatem, agit ut ratiocinans et praeeligens. Ergo Deus non agit per voluntatem. Ergo voluntas Dei non est causa rerum. Objection 1: It seems that the will of God is not the cause of things. For Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv, 1): As our sun, not by reason nor by pre-election, but by its very being, enlightens all things that can participate in its light, so the divine good by its very essence pours the rays of goodness upon everything that exists. But every voluntary agent acts by reason and pre-election. Therefore God does not act by will; and so His will is not the cause of things. Praeterea, id quod est per essentiam, est primum in quolibet ordine, sicut in ordine ignitorum est primum, quod est ignis per essentiam. Sed Deus est primum agens. Ergo est agens per essentiam suam, quae est natura eius. Agit igitur per naturam, et non per voluntatem. Voluntas igitur divina non est causa rerum. Obj. 2: Further, the first in any order is that which is essentially so, thus in the order of burning things, that comes first which is fire by its essence. But God is the first agent. Therefore He acts by His essence; and that is His nature. He acts then by nature, and not by will. Therefore the divine will is not the cause of things. Praeterea, quidquid est causa alicuius per hoc quod est tale, est causa per naturam, et non per voluntatem, ignis enim causa est calefactionis, quia est calidus; sed artifex est causa domus, quia vult eam facere. Sed Augustinus dicit, in I de Doct. Christ., quod quia Deus bonus est, sumus. Ergo Deus per suam naturam est causa rerum, et non per voluntatem. Obj. 3: Further, whatever is the cause of anything, through being such a thing, is the cause by nature, and not by will. For fire is the cause of heat, as being itself hot; whereas an architect is the cause of a house, because he wills to build it. Now Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 32), Because God is good, we exist. Therefore God is the cause of things by His nature, and not by His will. Praeterea, unius rei una est causa. Sed rerum creatarum est causa scientia Dei, ut supra dictum est. Ergo voluntas Dei non debet poni causa rerum. Obj. 4: Further, of one thing there is one cause. But the cause of created things is the knowledge of God, as said before (Q. 14, A. 8). Therefore the will of God cannot be considered the cause of things. Sed contra est quod dicitur Sap. XI, quomodo posset aliquid permanere, nisi tu voluisses? On the contrary, It is said (Wis 11:26), How could anything endure, if Thou wouldst not?