Articulus 4 Article 4 Utrum voluntas Dei sit causa rerum Whether the will of God is the cause of things? Ad quartum sic proceditur. Videtur quod voluntas Dei non sit causa rerum. Dicit enim Dionysius, cap. IV de Div. Nom., sicut noster sol, non ratiocinans aut praeeligens, sed per ipsum esse illuminat omnia participare lumen ipsius valentia; ita et bonum divinum per ipsam essentiam omnibus existentibus immittit bonitatis suae radios. Sed omne quod agit per voluntatem, agit ut ratiocinans et praeeligens. Ergo Deus non agit per voluntatem. Ergo voluntas Dei non est causa rerum. Objection 1: It seems that the will of God is not the cause of things. For Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv, 1): As our sun, not by reason nor by pre-election, but by its very being, enlightens all things that can participate in its light, so the divine good by its very essence pours the rays of goodness upon everything that exists. But every voluntary agent acts by reason and pre-election. Therefore God does not act by will; and so His will is not the cause of things. Praeterea, id quod est per essentiam, est primum in quolibet ordine, sicut in ordine ignitorum est primum, quod est ignis per essentiam. Sed Deus est primum agens. Ergo est agens per essentiam suam, quae est natura eius. Agit igitur per naturam, et non per voluntatem. Voluntas igitur divina non est causa rerum. Obj. 2: Further, the first in any order is that which is essentially so, thus in the order of burning things, that comes first which is fire by its essence. But God is the first agent. Therefore He acts by His essence; and that is His nature. He acts then by nature, and not by will. Therefore the divine will is not the cause of things. Praeterea, quidquid est causa alicuius per hoc quod est tale, est causa per naturam, et non per voluntatem, ignis enim causa est calefactionis, quia est calidus; sed artifex est causa domus, quia vult eam facere. Sed Augustinus dicit, in I de Doct. Christ., quod quia Deus bonus est, sumus. Ergo Deus per suam naturam est causa rerum, et non per voluntatem. Obj. 3: Further, whatever is the cause of anything, through being such a thing, is the cause by nature, and not by will. For fire is the cause of heat, as being itself hot; whereas an architect is the cause of a house, because he wills to build it. Now Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 32), Because God is good, we exist. Therefore God is the cause of things by His nature, and not by His will. Praeterea, unius rei una est causa. Sed rerum creatarum est causa scientia Dei, ut supra dictum est. Ergo voluntas Dei non debet poni causa rerum. Obj. 4: Further, of one thing there is one cause. But the cause of created things is the knowledge of God, as said before (Q. 14, A. 8). Therefore the will of God cannot be considered the cause of things. Sed contra est quod dicitur Sap. XI, quomodo posset aliquid permanere, nisi tu voluisses? On the contrary, It is said (Wis 11:26), How could anything endure, if Thou wouldst not? Respondeo dicendum quod necesse est dicere voluntatem Dei esse causam rerum, et Deum agere per voluntatem, non per necessitatem naturae, ut quidam existimaverunt. Quod quidem apparere potest tripliciter. I answer that, We must hold that the will of God is the cause of things; and that He acts by the will, and not, as some have supposed, by a necessity of His nature. Primo quidem, ex ipso ordine causarum agentium. Cum enim propter finem agat et intellectus et natura, ut probatur in II Physic., necesse est ut agenti per naturam praedeterminetur finis, et media necessaria ad finem, ab aliquo superiori intellectu; sicut sagittae praedeterminatur finis et certus motus a sagittante. Unde necesse est quod agens per intellectum et voluntatem, sit prius agente per naturam. Unde, cum primum in ordine agentium sit Deus, necesse est quod per intellectum et voluntatem agat. This can be shown in three ways: First, from the order itself of active causes. Since both intellect and nature act for an end, as proved in Phys. ii, 49, the natural agent must have the end and the necessary means predetermined for it by some higher intellect; as the end and definite movement is predetermined for the arrow by the archer. Hence the intellectual and voluntary agent must precede the agent that acts by nature. Hence, since God is first in the order of agents, He must act by intellect and will. Secundo, ex ratione naturalis agentis, ad quod pertinet ut unum effectum producat, quia natura uno et eodem modo operatur, nisi impediatur. Et hoc ideo, quia secundum quod est tale, agit, unde, quandiu est tale, non facit nisi tale. Omne enim agens per naturam, habet esse determinatum. Cum igitur esse divinum non sit determinatum, sed contineat in se totam perfectionem essendi, non potest esse quod agat per necessitatem naturae, nisi forte causaret aliquid indeterminatum et infinitum in essendo; quod est impossibile, ut ex superioribus patet. Non igitur agit per necessitatem naturae sed effectus determinati ab infinita ipsius perfectione procedunt secundum determinationem voluntatis et intellectus ipsius. This is shown, second, from the character of a natural agent, of which the property is to produce one and the same effect; for nature operates in one and the same way unless it be prevented. This is because the nature of the act is according to the nature of the agent; and hence as long as it has that nature, its acts will be in accordance with that nature; for every natural agent has a determinate being. Since, then, the Divine Being is undetermined, and contains in Himself the full perfection of being, it cannot be that He acts by a necessity of His nature, unless He were to cause something undetermined and indefinite in being: and that this is impossible has been already shown (Q. 7, A. 2). He does not, therefore, act by a necessity of His nature, but determined effects proceed from His own infinite perfection according to the determination of His will and intellect. Tertio, ex habitudine effectuum ad causam. Secundum hoc enim effectus procedunt a causa agente, secundum quod praeexistunt in ea, quia omne agens agit sibi simile. Praeexistunt autem effectus in causa secundum modum causae. Unde, cum esse divinum sit ipsum eius intelligere, praeexistunt in eo effectus eius secundum modum intelligibilem. Unde et per modum intelligibilem procedunt ab eo. Et sic, per consequens, per modum voluntatis, nam inclinatio eius ad agendum quod intellectu conceptum est, pertinet ad voluntatem. Voluntas igitur Dei est causa rerum. Third, it is shown by the relation of effects to their cause. For effects proceed from the agent that causes them, in so far as they pre-exist in the agent; since every agent produces its like. Now effects pre-exist in their cause after the mode of the cause. Wherefore since the Divine Being is His own intellect, effects pre-exist in Him after the mode of intellect, and therefore proceed from Him after the same mode. Consequently, they proceed from Him after the mode of will, for His inclination to put in act what His intellect has conceived appertains to the will. Therefore the will of God is the cause of things. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod Dionysius per verba illa non intendit excludere electionem a Deo simpliciter, sed secundum quid, inquantum scilicet, non quibusdam solum bonitatem suam communicat, sed omnibus, prout scilicet electio discretionem quandam importat. Reply Obj. 1: Dionysius in these words does not intend to exclude election from God absolutely; but only in a certain sense, in so far, that is, as He communicates His goodness not merely to certain things, but to all; and as election implies a certain distinction. Ad secundum dicendum quod, quia essentia Dei est eius intelligere et velle, ex hoc ipso quod per essentiam suam agit, sequitur quod agat per modum intellectus et voluntatis. Reply Obj. 2: Because the essence of God is His intellect and will, from the fact of His acting by His essence, it follows that He acts after the mode of intellect and will. Ad tertium dicendum quod bonum est obiectum voluntatis. Pro tanto ergo dicitur, quia Deus bonus est, sumus, inquantum sua bonitas est ei ratio volendi omnia alia, ut supra dictum est. Reply Obj. 3: Good is the object of the will. The words, therefore, Because God is good, we exist, are true inasmuch as His goodness is the reason of His willing all other things, as said before (A. 2, ad 2). Ad quartum dicendum quod unius et eiusdem effectus, etiam in nobis, est causa scientia ut dirigens, qua concipitur forma operis, et voluntas ut imperans, quia forma, ut est in intellectu tantum, non determinatur ad hoc quod sit vel non sit in effectu, nisi per voluntatem. Unde intellectus speculativus nihil dicit de operando. Sed potentia est causa ut exequens, quia nominat immediatum principium operationis. Sed haec omnia in Deo unum sunt. Reply Obj. 4: Even in us the cause of one and the same effect is knowledge as directing it, whereby the form of the work is conceived, and will as commanding it, since the form as it is in the intellect only is not determined to exist or not to exist in the effect, except by the will. Hence, the speculative intellect has nothing to say to operation. But the power is cause, as executing the effect, since it denotes the immediate principle of operation. But in God all these things are one. Articulus 5 Article 5 Utrum voluntatis divinae sit assignare aliquam causam Whether any cause can be assigned to the divine will? Ad quintum sic proceditur. Videtur quod voluntatis divinae sit assignare aliquam causam. Dicit enim Augustinus, libro octoginta trium quaest., quis audeat dicere Deum irrationabiliter omnia condidisse? Sed agenti voluntario, quod est ratio operandi, est etiam causa volendi. Ergo voluntas Dei habet aliquam causam. Objection 1: It seems that some cause can be assigned to the divine will. For Augustine says (Qq. lxxxiii, 46): Who would venture to say that God made all things irrationally? But to a voluntary agent, what is the reason of operating, is the cause of willing. Therefore the will of God has some cause. Praeterea, in his quae fiunt a volente qui propter nullam causam aliquid vult, non oportet aliam causam assignare nisi voluntatem volentis. Sed voluntas Dei est causa omnium rerum, ut ostensum est. Si igitur voluntatis eius non sit aliqua causa, non oportebit in omnibus rebus naturalibus aliam causam quaerere, nisi solam voluntatem divinam. Et sic omnes scientiae essent supervacuae, quae causas aliquorum effectuum assignare nituntur, quod videtur inconveniens. Est igitur assignare aliquam causam voluntatis divinae. Obj. 2: Further, in things made by one who wills to make them, and whose will is influenced by no cause, there can be no cause assigned except by the will of him who wills. But the will of God is the cause of all things, as has been already shown (A. 4). If, then, there is no cause of His will, we cannot seek in any natural things any cause, except the divine will alone. Thus all science would be in vain, since science seeks to assign causes to effects. This seems inadmissible, and therefore we must assign some cause to the divine will. Praeterea, quod fit a volente non propter aliquam causam, dependet ex simplici voluntate eius. Si igitur voluntas Dei non habeat aliquam causam, sequitur quod omnia quae fiunt, dependeant ex simplici eius voluntate, et non habeant aliquam aliam causam. Quod est inconveniens. Obj. 3: Further, what is done by the willer, on account of no cause, depends simply on his will. If, therefore, the will of God has no cause, it follows that all things made depend simply on His will, and have no other cause. But this also is not admissible. Sed contra est quod dicit Augustinus, in libro octoginta trium quaest., omnis causa efficiens maior est eo quod efficitur; nihil tamen maius est voluntate Dei; non ergo causa eius quaerenda est. On the contrary, Augustine says (Qq. lxxxiii, 28): Every efficient cause is greater than the thing effected. But nothing is greater than the will of God. We must not then seek for a cause of it. Respondeo dicendum quod nullo modo voluntas Dei causam habet. Ad cuius evidentiam, considerandum est quod, cum voluntas sequatur intellectum, eodem modo contingit esse causam alicuius volentis ut velit, et alicuius intelligentis ut intelligat. In intellectu autem sic est quod, si seorsum intelligat principium, et seorsum conclusionem, intelligentia principii est causa scientiae conclusionis. Sed si intellectus in ipso principio inspiceret conclusionem, uno intuitu apprehendens utrumque, in eo scientia conclusionis non causaretur ab intellectu principiorum, quia idem non est causa sui ipsius. Sed tamen intelligeret principia esse causas conclusionis. Similiter est ex parte voluntatis, circa quam sic se habet finis ad ea quae sunt ad finem, sicut in intellectu principia ad conclusiones. I answer that, In no way has the will of God a cause. In proof of which we must consider that, since the will follows from the intellect, there is cause of the will in the person who wills, in the same way as there is a cause of the understanding in the person that understands. The case with the understanding is this: that if the premise and its conclusion are understood separately from each other, the understanding the premise is the cause that the conclusion is known. If the understanding perceive the conclusion in the premise itself, apprehending both the one and the other at the same glance, in this case the knowing of the conclusion would not be caused by understanding the premises, since a thing cannot be its own cause; and yet, it would be true that the thinker would understand the premises to be the cause of the conclusion. It is the same with the will, with respect to which the end stands in the same relation to the means to the end, as do the premises to the conclusion with regard to the understanding. Unde, si aliquis uno actu velit finem, et alio actu ea quae sunt ad finem, velle finem erit ei causa volendi ea quae sunt ad finem. Sed si uno actu velit finem et ea quae sunt ad finem, hoc esse non poterit, quia idem non est causa sui ipsius. Et tamen erit verum dicere quod velit ordinare ea quae sunt ad finem, in finem. Deus autem, sicut uno actu omnia in essentia sua intelligit, ita uno actu vult omnia in sua bonitate. Unde, sicut in Deo intelligere causam non est causa intelligendi effectus, sed ipse intelligit effectus in causa; ita velle finem non est ei causa volendi ea quae sunt ad finem, sed tamen vult ea quae sunt ad finem, ordinari in finem. Vult ergo hoc esse propter hoc, sed non propter hoc vult hoc. Hence, if anyone in one act wills an end, and in another act the means to that end, his willing the end will be the cause of his willing the means. This cannot be the case if in one act he wills both end and means; for a thing cannot be its own cause. Yet it will be true to say that he wills to order to the end the means to the end. Now as God by one act understands all things in His essence, so by one act He wills all things in His goodness. Hence, as in God to understand the cause is not the cause of His understanding the effect, for He understands the effect in the cause, so, in Him, to will an end is not the cause of His willing the means, yet He wills the ordering of the means to the end. Therefore, He wills this to be as means to that; but does not will this on account of that. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod voluntas Dei rationabilis est, non quod aliquid sit Deo causa volendi, sed inquantum vult unum esse propter aliud. Reply Obj. 1: The will of God is reasonable, not because anything is to God a cause of willing, but in so far as He wills one thing to be on account of another. Ad secundum dicendum quod, cum velit Deus effectus sic esse, ut ex causis certis proveniant, ad hoc quod servetur ordo in rebus; non est supervacuum, etiam cum voluntate Dei, alias causas quaerere. Esset tamen supervacuum, si aliae causae quaererentur ut primae, et non dependentes a divina voluntate. Et sic loquitur Augustinus in III De Trin., placuit vanitati philosophorum etiam aliis causis effectus contingentes tribuere, cum omnino videre non possent superiorem ceteris omnibus causam, idest voluntatem Dei. Reply Obj. 2: Since God wills effects to proceed from definite causes, for the preservation of order in the universe, it is not unreasonable to seek for causes secondary to the divine will. It would, however, be unreasonable to do so, if such were considered as primary, and not as dependent on the will of God. In this sense Augustine says (De Trin. iii, 2): Philosophers in their vanity have thought fit to attribute contingent effects to other causes, being utterly unable to perceive the cause that is shown above all others, the will of God. Ad tertium dicendum quod, cum Deus velit effectus esse propter causas, quicumque effectus praesupponunt aliquem alium effectum, non dependent ex sola Dei voluntate, sed ex aliquo alio. Sed primi effectus ex sola divina voluntate dependent. Utpote si dicamus quod Deus voluit hominem habere manus, ut deservirent intellectui, operando diversa opera, et voluit eum habere intellectum, ad hoc quod esset homo, et voluit eum esse hominem, ut frueretur ipso, vel ad complementum universi. Quae quidem non est reducere ad alios fines creatos ulteriores. Unde huiusmodi dependent ex simplici voluntate Dei, alia vero ex ordine etiam aliarum causarum. Reply Obj. 3: Since God wills effects to come from causes, all effects that presuppose some other effect do not depend solely on the will of God, but on something else besides: but the first effect depends on the divine will alone. Thus, for example, we may say that God willed man to have hands to serve his intellect by their work, and intellect, that he might be man; and willed him to be man that he might enjoy Him, or for the completion of the universe. But this cannot be reduced to other created secondary ends. Hence such things depend on the simple will of God; but the others on the order of other causes. Articulus 6 Article 6 Utrum voluntas Dei semper impleatur Whether the will of God is always fulfilled? Ad sextum sic proceditur. Videtur quod voluntas Dei non semper impleatur. Dicit enim Apostolus, I ad Tim. II, quod Deus vult omnes homines salvos fieri, et ad agnitionem veritatis venire. Sed hoc non ita evenit. Ergo voluntas Dei non semper impletur. Objection 1: It seems that the will of God is not always fulfilled. For the Apostle says (1 Tim 2:4): God wills all men to be saved, and to come to the knowledge of the truth. But this does not happen. Therefore the will of God is not always fulfilled. Praeterea, sicut se habet scientia ad verum, ita voluntas ad bonum. Sed Deus scit omne verum. Ergo vult omne bonum. Sed non omne bonum fit, multa enim bona possunt fieri, quae non fiunt. Non ergo voluntas Dei semper impletur. Obj. 2: Further, as is the relation of knowledge to truth, so is that of the will to good. Now God knows all truth. Therefore He wills all good. But not all good actually exists; for much more good might exist. Therefore the will of God is not always fulfilled. Praeterea, voluntas Dei, cum sit causa prima, non excludit causas medias, ut dictum est. Sed effectus causae primae potest impediri per defectum causae secundae, sicut effectus virtutis motivae impeditur propter debilitatem tibiae. Ergo et effectus divinae voluntatis potest impediri propter defectum secundarum causarum. Non ergo voluntas Dei semper impletur. Obj. 3: Further, since the will of God is the first cause, it does not exclude intermediate causes. But the effect of a first cause may be hindered by a defect of a secondary cause; as the effect of the motive power may be hindered by the weakness of the limb. Therefore the effect of the divine will may be hindered by a defect of the secondary causes. The will of God, therefore, is not always fulfilled. Sed contra est quod dicitur in Psalmo CXIII, omnia quaecumque voluit Deus, fecit. On the contrary, It is said (Ps 113:11): God hath done all things, whatsoever He would. Respondeo dicendum quod necesse est voluntatem Dei semper impleri. Ad cuius evidentiam, considerandum est quod, cum effectus conformetur agenti secundum suam formam, eadem ratio est in causis agentibus, quae est in causis formalibus. In formis autem sic est quod, licet aliquid possit deficere ab aliqua forma particulari, tamen a forma universali nihil deficere potest, potest enim esse aliquid quod non est homo vel vivum, non autem potest esse aliquid quod non sit ens. Unde et hoc idem in causis agentibus contingere oportet. Potest enim aliquid fieri extra ordinem alicuius causae particularis agentis, non autem extra ordinem alicuius causae universalis, sub qua omnes causae particulares comprehenduntur. Quia, si aliqua causa particularis deficiat a suo effectu, hoc est propter aliquam aliam causam particularem impedientem, quae continetur sub ordine causae universalis, unde effectus ordinem causae universalis nullo modo potest exire. Et hoc etiam patet in corporalibus. Potest enim impediri quod aliqua stella non inducat suum effectum, sed tamen quicumque effectus ex causa corporea impediente in rebus corporalibus consequatur, oportet quod reducatur per aliquas causas medias in universalem virtutem primi caeli. I answer that, The will of God must needs always be fulfilled. In proof of which we must consider that since an effect is conformed to the agent according to its form, the rule is the same with agent causes as with formal causes. The rule in forms is this: that although a thing may fall short of any particular form, it cannot fall short of the universal form. For though a thing may fail to be, for example, a man or a living being, yet it cannot fail to be a being. Hence the same must happen in agent causes. Something may fall outside the order of any particular agent cause, but not outside the order of the universal cause; under which all particular causes are included: and if any particular cause fails of its effect, this is because of the hindrance of some other particular cause, which is included in the order of the universal cause. Therefore an effect cannot possibly escape the order of the universal cause. Even in corporeal things this is clearly seen. For it may happen that a star is hindered from producing its effects; yet whatever effect does result, in corporeal things, from this hindrance of a corporeal cause, must be referred through intermediate causes to the universal influence of the first heaven. Cum igitur voluntas Dei sit universalis causa omnium rerum, impossibile est quod divina voluntas suum effectum non consequatur. Unde quod recedere videtur a divina voluntate secundum unum ordinem, relabitur in ipsam secundum alium, sicut peccator, qui, quantum est in se, recedit a divina voluntate peccando, incidit in ordinem divinae voluntatis, dum per eius iustitiam punitur. Since, then, the will of God is the universal cause of all things, it is impossible that the divine will should not produce its effect. Hence that which seems to depart from the divine will in one order, returns into it in another order; as does the sinner, who by sin falls away from the divine will as much as lies in him, yet falls back into the order of that will, when by its justice he is punished. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod illud verbum Apostoli, quod Deus vult omnes homines salvos fieri etc., potest tripliciter intelligi. Uno modo, ut sit accommoda distributio, secundum hunc sensum, Deus vult salvos fieri omnes homines qui salvantur, non quia nullus homo sit quem salvum fieri non velit, sed quia nullus salvus fit, quem non velit salvum fieri, ut dicit Augustinus. Secundo potest intelligi, ut fiat distributio pro generibus singulorum, et non pro singulis generum, secundum hunc sensum, Deus vult de quolibet statu hominum salvos fieri, mares et feminas, Iudaeos et gentiles, parvos et magnos; non tamen omnes de singulis statibus. Tertio, secundum Damascenum, intelligitur de voluntate antecedente, non de voluntate consequente. Quae quidem distinctio non accipitur ex parte ipsius voluntatis divinae, in qua nihil est prius vel posterius; sed ex parte volitorum. Reply Obj. 1: The words of the Apostle, God will have all men to be saved, etc. can be understood in three ways. First, by a restricted application, in which case they would mean, as Augustine says (De praed. sanct. i, 8: Enchiridion 103), God wills all men to be saved that are saved, not because there is no man whom He does not wish saved, but because there is no man saved whose salvation He does not will. Second, they can be understood as applying to every class of individuals, not to every individual of each class; in which case they mean that God wills some men of every class and condition to be saved, males and females, Jews and Gentiles, great and small, but not all of every condition. Third, according to Damascene (De Fide Orth. ii, 29), they are understood of the antecedent will of God; not of the consequent will. This distinction must not be taken as applying to the divine will itself, in which there is nothing antecedent nor consequent, but to the things willed. Ad cuius intellectum, considerandum est quod unumquodque, secundum quod bonum est, sic est volitum a Deo. Aliquid autem potest esse in prima sui consideratione, secundum quod absolute consideratur, bonum vel malum, quod tamen, prout cum aliquo adiuncto consideratur, quae est consequens consideratio eius, e contrario se habet. Sicut hominem vivere est bonum, et hominem occidi est malum, secundum absolutam considerationem, sed si addatur circa aliquem hominem, quod sit homicida, vel vivens in periculum multitudinis, sic bonum est eum occidi, et malum est eum vivere. Unde potest dici quod iudex iustus antecedenter vult omnem hominem vivere; sed consequenter vult homicidam suspendi. Similiter Deus antecedenter vult omnem hominem salvari; sed consequenter vult quosdam damnari, secundum exigentiam suae iustitiae. Neque tamen id quod antecedenter volumus, simpliciter volumus, sed secundum quid. Quia voluntas comparatur ad res, secundum quod in seipsis sunt, in seipsis autem sunt in particulari, unde simpliciter volumus aliquid, secundum quod volumus illud consideratis omnibus circumstantiis particularibus, quod est consequenter velle. Unde potest dici quod iudex iustus simpliciter vult homicidam suspendi, sed secundum quid vellet eum vivere, scilicet inquantum est homo. Unde magis potest dici velleitas, quam absoluta voluntas. Et sic patet quod quidquid Deus simpliciter vult, fit; licet illud quod antecedenter vult, non fiat. To understand this we must consider that everything, in so far as it is good, is willed by God. A thing taken in its primary sense, and absolutely considered, may be good or evil, and yet when some additional circumstances are taken into account, by a consequent consideration may be changed into the contrary. Thus that a man should live is good; and that a man should be killed is evil, absolutely considered. But if in a particular case we add that a man is a murderer or dangerous to society, to kill him is a good; that he live is an evil. Hence it may be said of a just judge, that antecedently he wills all men to live; but consequently wills the murderer to be hanged. In the same way God antecedently wills all men to be saved, but consequently wills some to be damned, as His justice exacts. Nor do we will simply, what we will antecedently, but rather we will it in a qualified manner; for the will is directed to things as they are in themselves, and in themselves they exist under particular qualifications. Hence we will a thing simply inasmuch as we will it when all particular circumstances are considered; and this is what is meant by willing consequently. Thus it may be said that a just judge wills simply the hanging of a murderer, but in a qualified manner he would will him to live, to wit, inasmuch as he is a man. Such a qualified will may be called a willingness rather than an absolute will. Thus it is clear that whatever God simply wills takes place; although what He wills antecedently may not take place.