Articulus 1 Article 1 Utrum in Deo sit potentia Whether there is power in God? Ad primum sic proceditur. Videtur quod in Deo non sit potentia. Sicut enim prima materia se habet ad potentiam, ita Deus, qui est agens primum, se habet ad actum. Sed prima materia, secundum se considerata, est absque omni actu. Ergo agens primum, quod est Deus, est absque potentia. Objection 1: It seems that power is not in God. For as primary matter is to power, so God, who is the first agent, is to act. But primary matter, considered in itself, is devoid of all act. Therefore, the first agent—namely, God—is devoid of power. Praeterea, secundum Philosophum, in IX Metaphys., qualibet potentia melior est eius actus, nam forma est melior quam materia, et actio quam potentia activa; est enim finis eius. Sed nihil est melius eo quod est in Deo, quia quidquid est in Deo, est Deus, ut supra ostensum est. Ergo nulla potentia est in Deo. Obj. 2: Further, according to the Philosopher (Metaph. vi, 19), better than every power is its act. For form is better than matter; and action than active power, since it is its end. But nothing is better than what is in God; because whatsoever is in God, is God, as was shown above (Q. 3, A. 3). Therefore, there is no power in God. Praeterea, potentia est principium operationis. Sed operatio divina est eius essentia, cum in Deo nullum sit accidens. Essentiae autem divinae non est aliquod principium. Ergo ratio potentiae Deo non convenit. Obj. 3: Further, power is the principle of operation. But the divine power is God’s essence, since there is nothing accidental in God: and of the essence of God there is no principle. Therefore there is no power in God. Praeterea, supra ostensum est quod scientia Dei et voluntas eius sunt causa rerum. Causa autem et principium idem sunt. Ergo non oportet in Deo assignare potentiam, sed solum scientiam et voluntatem. Obj. 4: Further, it was shown above (Q. 14, A. 8; Q. 19, A. 4) that God’s knowledge and will are the cause of things. But the cause and principle of a thing are identical. We ought not, therefore, to assign power to God; but only knowledge and will. Sed contra est quod dicitur in Psalmo LXXXVIII, potens es, domine, et veritas tua in circuitu tuo. On the contrary, It is said: Thou art mighty, O Lord, and Thy truth is round about Thee (Ps 88:9). Respondeo dicendum quod duplex est potentia, scilicet passiva, quae nullo modo est in Deo; et activa, quam oportet in Deo summe ponere. Manifestum est enim quod unumquodque, secundum quod est actu et perfectum, secundum hoc est principium activum alicuius, patitur autem unumquodque, secundum quod est deficiens et imperfectum. Ostensum est autem supra quod Deus est purus actus, et simpliciter et universaliter perfectus; neque in eo aliqua imperfectio locum habet. Unde sibi maxime competit esse principium activum, et nullo modo pati. Ratio autem activi principii convenit potentiae activae. Nam potentia activa est principium agendi in aliud, potentia vero passiva est principium patiendi ab alio, ut Philosophus dicit, V Metaphys. Relinquitur ergo quod in Deo maxime sit potentia activa. I answer that, Power is twofold—namely, passive, which exists not at all in God; and active, which we must assign to Him in the highest degree. For it is manifest that everything, according as it is in act and is perfect, is the active principle of something: whereas everything is passive according as it is deficient and imperfect. Now it was shown above (Q. 3, A. 2; Q. 4, AA. 1, 2), that God is pure act, simply and in all ways perfect, nor in Him does any imperfection find place. Whence it most fittingly belongs to Him to be an active principle, and in no way whatsoever to be passive. On the other hand, the notion of active principle is consistent with active power. For active power is the principle of acting upon something else; whereas passive power is the principle of being acted upon by something else, as the Philosopher says (Metaph. v, 17). It remains, therefore, that in God there is active power in the highest degree. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod potentia activa non dividitur contra actum, sed fundatur in eo, nam unumquodque agit secundum quod est actu. Potentia vero passiva dividitur contra actum, nam unumquodque patitur secundum quod est in potentia. Unde haec potentia excluditur a Deo, non autem activa. Reply Obj. 1: Active power is not contrary to act, but is founded upon it, for everything acts according as it is actual: but passive power is contrary to act; for a thing is passive according as it is potential. Whence this potentiality is not in God, but only active power. Ad secundum dicendum quod, quandocumque actus est aliud a potentia, oportet quod actus sit nobilior potentia. Sed actio Dei non est aliud ab eius potentia, sed utrumque est essentia divina, quia nec esse eius est aliud ab eius essentia. Unde non oportet quod aliquid sit nobilius quam potentia Dei. Reply Obj. 2: Whenever act is distinct from power, act must be nobler than power. But God’s action is not distinct from His power, for both are His divine essence; neither is His existence distinct from His essence. Hence it does not follow that there should be anything in God nobler than His power. Ad tertium dicendum quod potentia in rebus creatis non solum est principium actionis, sed etiam effectus. Sic igitur in Deo salvatur ratio potentiae quantum ad hoc, quod est principium effectus, non autem quantum ad hoc, quod est principium actionis, quae est divina essentia. Nisi forte secundum modum intelligendi, prout divina essentia, quae in se simpliciter praehabet quidquid perfectionis est in rebus creatis, potest intelligi et sub ratione actionis, et sub ratione potentiae; sicut etiam intelligitur et sub ratione suppositi habentis naturam, et sub ratione naturae. Reply Obj. 3: In creatures, power is the principle not only of action, but likewise of effect. Thus in God the idea of power is retained, inasmuch as it is the principle of an effect; not, however, as it is a principle of action, for this is the divine essence itself; except, perchance, after our manner of understanding, inasmuch as the divine essence, which pre-contains in itself all perfection that exists in created things, can be understood either under the notion of action, or under that of power; as also it is understood under the notion of suppositum possessing nature, and under that of nature. Accordingly the notion of power is retained in God in so far as it is the principle of an effect. Ad quartum dicendum quod potentia non ponitur in Deo ut aliquid differens a scientia et voluntate secundum rem, sed solum secundum rationem; inquantum scilicet potentia importat rationem principii exequentis id quod voluntas imperat, et ad quod scientia dirigit; quae tria Deo secundum idem conveniunt. Vel dicendum quod ipsa scientia vel voluntas divina, secundum quod est principium effectivum, habet rationem potentiae. Unde consideratio scientiae et voluntatis praecedit in Deo considerationem potentiae, sicut causa praecedit operationem et effectum. Reply Obj. 4: Power is predicated of God not as something really distinct from His knowledge and will, but as differing from them logically; inasmuch as power implies a notion of a principle putting into execution what the will commands, and what knowledge directs, which three things in God are identified. Or we may say, that the knowledge or will of God, according as it is the effective principle, has the notion of power contained in it. Hence the consideration of the knowledge and will of God precedes the consideration of His power, as the cause precedes the operation and effect. Articulus 2 Article 2 Utrum potentia Dei sit infinita Whether the power of God is infinite? Ad secundum sic proceditur. Videtur quod potentia Dei non sit infinita. Omne enim infinitum est imperfectum, secundum Philosophum, in III Physic. Sed potentia Dei non est imperfecta. Ergo non est infinita. Objection 1: It seems that the power of God is not infinite. For everything that is infinite is imperfect according to the Philosopher (Phys. iii, 6). But the power of God is far from imperfect. Therefore it is not infinite. Praeterea, omnis potentia manifestatur per effectum, alias frustra esset. Si igitur potentia Dei esset infinita, posset facere effectum infinitum. Quod est impossibile. Obj. 2: Further, every power is made known by its effect; otherwise it would be ineffectual. If, then, the power of God were infinite, it could produce an infinite effect, but this is impossible. Praeterea, Philosophus probat in VIII Physic., quod si potentia alicuius corporis esset infinita, moveret in instanti. Deus autem non movet in instanti, sed movet creaturam spiritualem per tempus, creaturam vero corporalem per locum et tempus, secundum Augustinum, VIII super Genesim ad litteram. Non ergo est eius potentia infinita. Obj. 3: Further, the Philosopher proves (Phys. viii, 79) that if the power of any corporeal thing were infinite, it would cause instantaneous movement. God, however, does not cause instantaneous movement, but moves the spiritual creature in time, and the corporeal creature in place and time, as Augustine says (Gen ad lit. 20, 22, 23). Therefore, His power is not infinite. Sed contra est quod dicit Hilarius, VIII de Trin., quod Deus est immensae virtutis, vivens, potens. Omne autem immensum est infinitum. Ergo virtus divina est infinita. On the contrary, Hilary says (De Trin. viii), that God’s power is immeasurable. He is the living mighty one. Now everything that is immeasurable is infinite. Therefore the power of God is infinite. Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut iam dictum est, secundum hoc potentia activa invenitur in Deo, secundum quod ipse actu est. Esse autem eius est infinitum, inquantum non est limitatum per aliquid recipiens; ut patet per ea quae supra dicta sunt, cum de infinitate divinae essentiae ageretur. Unde necesse est quod activa potentia Dei sit infinita. In omnibus enim agentibus hoc invenitur, quod quanto aliquod agens perfectius habet formam qua agit, tanto est maior eius potentia in agendo. Sicut quanto est aliquid magis calidum, tanto habet maiorem potentiam ad calefaciendum, et haberet utique potentiam infinitam ad calefaciendum, si eius calor esset infinitus. Unde, cum ipsa essentia divina, per quam Deus agit, sit infinita, sicut supra ostensum est, sequitur quod eius potentia sit infinita. I answer that, As stated above (A. 1), active power exists in God according to the measure in which He is actual. Now His existence is infinite, inasmuch as it is not limited by anything that receives it, as is clear from what has been said, when we discussed the infinity of the divine essence (Q. 7, A. 1). Wherefore, it is necessary that the active power in God should be infinite. For in every agent is it found that the more perfectly an agent has the form by which it acts, the greater its power to act. For instance, the hotter a thing is, the greater the power it has to give heat; and it would have infinite power to give heat, were its own heat infinite. Whence, since the divine essence, through which God acts, is infinite, as was shown above (Q. 7, A. 1), it follows that His power likewise is infinite. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod Philosophus loquitur de infinito quod est ex parte materiae non terminatae per formam; cuiusmodi est infinitum quod congruit quantitati. Sic autem non est infinita divina essentia, ut supra ostensum est; et per consequens nec eius potentia. Unde non sequitur quod sit imperfecta. Reply Obj. 1: The Philosopher is here speaking of an infinity in regard to matter not limited by any form; and such infinity belongs to quantity. But the divine essence is otherwise, as was shown above (Q. 7, A. 1); and consequently so also His power. It does not follow, therefore, that it is imperfect. Ad secundum dicendum quod potentia agentis univoci tota manifestatur in suo effectu, potentia enim generativa hominis nihil potest plus quam generare hominem. Sed potentia agentis non univoci non tota manifestatur in sui effectus productione, sicut potentia solis non tota manifestatur in productione alicuius animalis ex putrefactione generati. Manifestum est autem quod Deus non est agens univocum, nihil enim aliud potest cum eo convenire neque in specie, neque in genere, ut supra ostensum est. Unde relinquitur quod effectus eius semper est minor quam potentia eius. Non ergo oportet quod manifestetur infinita potentia Dei in hoc, quod producat effectum infinitum. Et tamen, etiam si nullum effectum produceret, non esset Dei potentia frustra. Quia frustra est quod ordinatur ad finem, quem non attingit, potentia autem Dei non ordinatur ad effectum sicut ad finem, sed magis ipsa est finis sui effectus. Reply Obj. 2: The power of a univocal agent is wholly manifested in its effect. The generative power of man, for example, is not able to do more than beget man. But the power of a non-univocal agent does not wholly manifest itself in the production of its effect: as, for example, the power of the sun does not wholly manifest itself in the production of an animal generated from putrefaction. Now it is clear that God is not a univocal agent. For nothing agrees with Him either in species or in genus, as was shown above (Q. 3, A. 5; Q. 4, A. 3). Whence it follows that His effect is always less than His power. It is not necessary, therefore, that the infinite power of God should be manifested so as to produce an infinite effect. Yet even if it were to produce no effect, the power of God would not be ineffectual; because a thing is ineffectual which is ordained towards an end to which it does not attain. But the power of God is not ordered toward its effect as towards an end; rather, it is the end of the effect produced by it. Ad tertium dicendum quod Philosophus in VIII Physic., probat, quod si aliquod corpus haberet potentiam infinitam, quod moveret in non tempore. Et tamen ostendit, quod potentia motoris caeli est infinita, quia movere potest tempore infinito. Relinquitur ergo secundum eius intentionem, quod potentia infinita corporis si esset, moveret in non tempore, non autem potentia incorporei motoris. Cuius ratio est, quia corpus movens aliud corpus, est agens univocum. Unde oportet quod tota potentia agentis manifestetur in motu. Quia igitur quanto moventis corporis potentia est maior, tanto velocius movet, necesse est quod si fuerit infinita, moveat improportionabiliter citius, quod est movere in non tempore. Sed movens incorporeum est agens non univocum. Unde non oportet, quod tota virtus eius manifestetur in motu ita, quod moveat in non tempore. Et praesertim, quia movet secundum dispositionem suae voluntatis. Reply Obj. 3: The Philosopher (Phys. viii, 79) proves that if a body had infinite power, it would cause a non-temporal movement. And he shows that the power of the mover of heaven is infinite, because it can move in an infinite time. It remains, therefore, according to his reckoning, that the infinite power of a body, if such existed, would move without time; not, however, the power of an incorporeal mover. The reason of this is that one body moving another is a univocal agent; wherefore it follows that the whole power of the agent is made known in its motion. Since then the greater the power of a moving body, the more quickly does it move; the necessary conclusion is that if its power were infinite, it would move beyond comparison faster, and this is to move without time. An incorporeal mover, however, is not a univocal agent; whence it is not necessary that the whole of its power should be manifested in motion, so as to move without time; and especially since it moves in accordance with the disposition of its will. Articulus 3 Article 3 Utrum Deus sit omnipotens Whether God is omnipotent? Ad tertium sic proceditur. Videtur quod Deus non sit omnipotens. Moveri enim et pati aliquid omnium est. Sed hoc Deus non potest, est enim immobilis, ut supra dictum est. Non igitur est omnipotens. Objection 1: It seems that God is not omnipotent. For movement and passiveness belong to everything. But this is impossible with God, for He is immovable, as was said above (Q. 2, A. 3). Therefore He is not omnipotent. Praeterea, peccare aliquid agere est. Sed Deus non potest peccare, neque seipsum negare, ut dicitur II Tim. II. Ergo Deus non est omnipotens. Obj. 2: Further, sin is an act of some kind. But God cannot sin, nor deny Himself as it is said in 2 Tim. 2:13. Therefore He is not omnipotent. Praeterea, de Deo dicitur quod omnipotentiam suam parcendo maxime et miserando manifestat. Ultimum igitur quod potest divina potentia, est parcere et misereri. Aliquid autem est multo maius quam parcere et misereri; sicut creare alium mundum, vel aliquid huiusmodi. Ergo Deus non est omnipotens. Obj. 3: Further, it is said of God that He manifests His omnipotence especially by sparing and having mercy. Therefore the greatest act possible to the divine power is to spare and have mercy. There are things much greater, however, than sparing and having mercy; for example, to create another world, and the like. Therefore God is not omnipotent. Praeterea, super illud I Cor. I, stultam fecit Deus sapientiam huius mundi, dicit Glossa, sapientiam huius mundi fecit Deus stultam, ostendendo possibile, quod illa impossibile iudicabat. Unde videtur quod non sit aliquid iudicandum possibile vel impossibile secundum inferiores causas, prout sapientia huius mundi iudicat; sed secundum potentiam divinam. Si igitur Deus sit omnipotens, omnia erunt possibilia. Nihil ergo impossibile. Sublato autem impossibili, tollitur necessarium, nam quod necesse est esse, impossibile est non esse. Nihil ergo erit necessarium in rebus, si Deus est omnipotens. Hoc autem est impossibile. Ergo Deus non est omnipotens. Obj. 4: Further, upon the text, God hath made foolish the wisdom of this world (1 Cor 1:20), a gloss says: God hath made the wisdom of this world foolish by showing those things to be possible which it judges to be impossible. Whence it would seem that nothing is to be judged possible or impossible in reference to inferior causes, as the wisdom of this world judges them; but in reference to the divine power. If God, then, were omnipotent, all things would be possible; nothing, therefore impossible. But if we take away the impossible, then we destroy also the necessary; for what necessarily exists is impossible not to exist. Therefore there would be nothing at all that is necessary in things if God were omnipotent. But this is an impossibility. Therefore God is not omnipotent. Sed contra est quod dicitur Luc. I, non erit impossibile apud Deum omne verbum. On the contrary, It is said: No word shall be impossible with God (Luke 1:37). Respondeo dicendum quod communiter confitentur omnes Deum esse omnipotentem. Sed rationem omnipotentiae assignare videtur difficile. Dubium enim potest esse quid comprehendatur sub ista distributione, cum dicitur omnia posse Deum. Sed si quis recte consideret, cum potentia dicatur ad possibilia, cum Deus omnia posse dicitur, nihil rectius intelligitur quam quod possit omnia possibilia, et ob hoc omnipotens dicatur. I answer that, All confess that God is omnipotent; but it seems difficult to explain in what His omnipotence precisely consists: for there may be doubt as to the precise meaning of the word ‘all’ when we say that God can do all things. If, however, we consider the matter aright, since power is said in reference to possible things, this phrase, God can do all things, is rightly understood to mean that God can do all things that are possible; and for this reason He is said to be omnipotent. Possibile autem dicitur dupliciter, secundum Philosophum, in V Metaphys. Uno modo, per respectum ad aliquam potentiam, sicut quod subditur humanae potentiae, dicitur esse possibile homini. Non autem potest dici quod Deus dicatur omnipotens, quia potest omnia quae sunt possibilia naturae creatae, quia divina potentia in plura extenditur. Si autem dicatur quod Deus sit omnipotens, quia potest omnia quae sunt possibilia suae potentiae, erit circulatio in manifestatione omnipotentiae, hoc enim non erit aliud quam dicere quod Deus est omnipotens, quia potest omnia quae potest. Now according to the Philosopher (Metaph. v, 17), a thing is said to be possible in two ways. First in relation to some power, thus whatever is subject to human power is said to be possible to man. Second absolutely, on account of the relation in which the very terms stand to each other. Now God cannot be said to be omnipotent through being able to do all things that are possible to created nature; for the divine power extends farther than that. If, however, we were to say that God is omnipotent because He can do all things that are possible to His power, there would be a vicious circle in explaining the nature of His power. For this would be saying nothing else but that God is omnipotent, because He can do all that He is able to do. Relinquitur igitur quod Deus dicatur omnipotens, quia potest omnia possibilia absolute, quod est alter modus dicendi possibile. Dicitur autem aliquid possibile vel impossibile absolute, ex habitudine terminorum, possibile quidem, quia praedicatum non repugnat subiecto, ut Socratem sedere; impossibile vero absolute, quia praedicatum repugnat subiecto, ut hominem esse asinum. It remains therefore, that God is called omnipotent because He can do all things that are possible absolutely; which is the second way of saying a thing is possible. For a thing is said to be possible or impossible absolutely, according to the relation in which the very terms stand to one another, possible if the predicate is not incompatible with the subject, as that Socrates sits; and absolutely impossible when the predicate is altogether incompatible with the subject, as, for instance, that a man is a donkey. Est autem considerandum quod, cum unumquodque agens agat sibi simile, unicuique potentiae activae correspondet possibile ut obiectum proprium, secundum rationem illius actus in quo fundatur potentia activa, sicut potentia calefactiva refertur, ut ad proprium obiectum, ad esse calefactibile. Esse autem divinum, super quod ratio divinae potentiae fundatur, est esse infinitum, non limitatum ad aliquod genus entis, sed praehabens in se totius esse perfectionem. Unde quidquid potest habere rationem entis, continetur sub possibilibus absolutis, respectu quorum Deus dicitur omnipotens. Nihil autem opponitur rationi entis, nisi non ens. Hoc igitur repugnat rationi possibilis absoluti, quod subditur divinae omnipotentiae, quod implicat in se esse et non esse simul. Hoc enim omnipotentiae non subditur, non propter defectum divinae potentiae; sed quia non potest habere rationem factibilis neque possibilis. It must, however, be remembered that since every agent produces an effect like itself, to each active power there corresponds a thing possible as its proper object according to the nature of that act on which its active power is founded; for instance, the power of giving warmth is related as to its proper object to the being capable of being warmed. The divine existence, however, upon which the nature of power in God is founded, is infinite, and is not limited to any genus of being; but possesses within itself the perfection of all being. Whence, whatsoever has or can have the nature of being, is numbered among the absolutely possible things, in respect of which God is called omnipotent. Now nothing is opposed to the idea of being except non-being. Therefore, that which implies being and non-being at the same time is repugnant to the idea of an absolutely possible thing, within the scope of the divine omnipotence. For such cannot come under the divine omnipotence, not because of any defect in the power of God, but because it has not the nature of a feasible or possible thing. Quaecumque igitur contradictionem non implicant, sub illis possibilibus continentur, respectu quorum dicitur Deus omnipotens. Ea vero quae contradictionem implicant, sub divina omnipotentia non continentur, quia non possunt habere possibilium rationem. Unde convenientius dicitur quod non possunt fieri, quam quod Deus non potest ea facere. Neque hoc est contra verbum angeli dicentis, non erit impossibile apud Deum omne verbum. Id enim quod contradictionem implicat, verbum esse non potest, quia nullus intellectus potest illud concipere. Therefore, everything that does not imply a contradiction in terms, is numbered among those possible things, in respect of which God is called omnipotent: whereas whatever implies contradiction does not come within the scope of divine omnipotence, because it cannot have the aspect of possibility. Hence it is better to say that such things cannot be done, than that God cannot do them. Nor is this contrary to the word of the angel, saying: No word shall be impossible with God. For whatever implies a contradiction cannot be a word, because no intellect can possibly conceive such a thing. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod Deus dicitur omnipotens secundum potentiam activam, non secundum potentiam passivam, ut dictum est. Unde, quod non potest moveri et pati, non repugnat omnipotentiae. Reply Obj. 1: God is said to be omnipotent in respect to His active power, not to passive power, as was shown above (A. 1). Whence the fact that He is immovable or impassible is not repugnant to His omnipotence. Ad secundum dicendum quod peccare est deficere a perfecta actione, unde posse peccare est posse deficere in agendo, quod repugnat omnipotentiae. Et propter hoc, Deus peccare non potest, qui est omnipotens. Quamvis Philosophus dicat, in IV Topic., quod potest Deus et studiosus prava agere. Sed hoc intelligitur vel sub conditione cuius antecedens sit impossibile, ut puta si dicamus quod potest Deus prava agere si velit, nihil enim prohibet conditionalem esse veram, cuius antecedens et consequens est impossibile; sicut si dicatur, si homo est asinus, habet quatuor pedes. Vel ut intelligatur quod Deus potest aliqua agere, quae nunc prava videntur; quae tamen si ageret, bona essent. Vel loquitur secundum communem opinionem gentilium, qui homines dicebant transferri in deos, ut Iovem vel Mercurium. Reply Obj. 2: To sin is to fall short of a perfect action; hence to be able to sin is to be able to fall short in action, which is repugnant to omnipotence. Therefore it is that God cannot sin, because of His omnipotence. Nevertheless, the Philosopher says (Topic. iv, 3) that God can deliberately do what is evil. But this must be understood either on a condition, the antecedent of which is impossible—as, for instance, if we were to say that God can do evil things if He will. For there is no reason why a conditional proposition should not be true, though both the antecedent and consequent are impossible: as if one were to say: If man is a donkey, he has four feet. Or he may be understood to mean that God can do some things which now seem to be evil: which, however, if He did them, would then be good. Or he is, perhaps, speaking after the common manner of the heathen, who thought that men became gods, like Jupiter or Mercury.