Articulus 1 Article 1 Utrum bonum differat secundum rem ab ente Whether goodness differs really from being? Ad primum sic proceditur. Videtur quod bonum differat secundum rem ab ente. Dicit enim Boetius, in libro de Hebdom., intueor in rebus aliud esse quod sunt bona, et aliud esse quod sunt. Ergo bonum et ens differunt secundum rem. Objection 1: It seems that goodness differs really from being. For Boethius says (De Hebdom.): I perceive that in nature the fact that things are good is one thing: that they are is another. Therefore goodness and being really differ. Praeterea, nihil informatur seipso. Sed bonum dicitur per informationem entis, ut habetur in commento libri de causis. Ergo bonum differt secundum rem ab ente. Obj. 2: Further, nothing can be its own form. But that is called good which has the form of being, according to the commentary on De Causis. Therefore goodness differs really from being. Praeterea, bonum suscipit magis et minus. Esse autem non suscipit magis et minus. Ergo bonum differt secundum rem ab ente. Obj. 3: Further, goodness can be more or less. But being cannot be more or less. Therefore goodness differs really from being. Sed contra est quod Augustinus dicit, in libro de doctrina Christiana, quod inquantum sumus, boni sumus. On the contrary, Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 42) that, inasmuch as we exist we are good. Respondeo dicendum quod bonum et ens sunt idem secundum rem, sed differunt secundum rationem tantum. Quod sic patet. Ratio enim boni in hoc consistit, quod aliquid sit appetibile, unde Philosophus, in I Ethic., dicit quod bonum est quod omnia appetunt. Manifestum est autem quod unumquodque est appetibile secundum quod est perfectum, nam omnia appetunt suam perfectionem. Intantum est autem perfectum unumquodque, inquantum est actu, unde manifestum est quod intantum est aliquid bonum, inquantum est ens, esse enim est actualitas omnis rei, ut ex superioribus patet. Unde manifestum est quod bonum et ens sunt idem secundum rem, sed bonum dicit rationem appetibilis, quam non dicit ens. I answer that, Goodness and being are really the same, and differ only in idea; which is clear from the following argument. The essence of goodness consists in this, that it is in some way desirable. Hence the Philosopher says (Ethic. i): Goodness is what all desire. Now it is clear that a thing is desirable only in so far as it is perfect; for all desire their own perfection. But everything is perfect so far as it is actual. Therefore it is clear that a thing is perfect so far as it exists; for it is existence that makes all things actual, as is clear from the foregoing (Q. 3, A. 4; Q. 4, A. 1). Hence it is clear that goodness and being are the same really. But goodness presents the aspect of desirableness, which being does not present. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod, licet bonum et ens sint idem secundum rem, quia tamen differunt secundum rationem, non eodem modo dicitur aliquid ens simpliciter, et bonum simpliciter. Nam cum ens dicat aliquid proprie esse in actu; actus autem proprie ordinem habeat ad potentiam; secundum hoc simpliciter aliquid dicitur ens, secundum quod primo discernitur ab eo quod est in potentia tantum. Hoc autem est esse substantiale rei uniuscuiusque; unde per suum esse substantiale dicitur unumquodque ens simpliciter. Per actus autem superadditos, dicitur aliquid esse secundum quid, sicut esse album significat esse secundum quid, non enim esse album aufert esse in potentia simpliciter, cum adveniat rei iam praeexistenti in actu. Reply Obj. 1: Although goodness and being are the same really, nevertheless since they differ in thought, they are not predicated of a thing absolutely in the same way. Since being properly signifies that something actually is, and actuality properly correlates to potentiality; a thing is, in consequence, said simply to have being, accordingly as it is primarily distinguished from that which is only in potentiality; and this is precisely each thing’s substantial being. Hence by its substantial being, everything is said to have being simply; but by any further actuality it is said to have being relatively. Thus to be white implies relative being, for to be white does not take a thing out of simply potential being; because only a thing that actually has being can receive this mode of being. Sed bonum dicit rationem perfecti, quod est appetibile, et per consequens dicit rationem ultimi. Unde id quod est ultimo perfectum, dicitur bonum simpliciter. Quod autem non habet ultimam perfectionem quam debet habere, quamvis habeat aliquam perfectionem inquantum est actu, non tamen dicitur perfectum simpliciter, nec bonum simpliciter, sed secundum quid. Sic ergo secundum primum esse, quod est substantiale, dicitur aliquid ens simpliciter et bonum secundum quid, idest inquantum est ens, secundum vero ultimum actum dicitur aliquid ens secundum quid, et bonum simpliciter. But goodness signifies perfection which is desirable; and consequently of ultimate perfection. Hence that which has ultimate perfection is said to be simply good; but that which has not the ultimate perfection it ought to have (although, in so far as it is at all actual, it has some perfection), is not said to be perfect simply nor good simply, but only relatively. In this way, therefore, viewed in its primal (i.e., substantial) being a thing is said to be simply, and to be good relatively (i.e., in so far as it has being) but viewed in its complete actuality, a thing is said to be relatively, and to be good simply. Sic ergo quod dicit Boetius, quod in rebus aliud est quod sunt bona, et aliud quod sunt, referendum est ad esse bonum et ad esse simpliciter, quia secundum primum actum est aliquid ens simpliciter; et secundum ultimum, bonum simpliciter. Et tamen secundum primum actum est quodammodo bonum, et secundum ultimum actum est quodammodo ens. Hence the saying of Boethius (De Hebdom.), I perceive that in nature the fact that things are good is one thing; that they are is another, is to be referred to a thing’s goodness simply, and having being simply. Because, regarded in its primal actuality, a thing simply exists; and regarded in its complete actuality, it is good simply—in such sort that even in its primal actuality, it is in some sort good, and even in its complete actuality, it in some sort has being. Ad secundum dicendum quod bonum dicitur per informationem, prout accipitur bonum simpliciter, secundum ultimum actum. Reply Obj. 2: Goodness is a form so far as absolute goodness signifies complete actuality. Et similiter dicendum ad tertium, quod bonum dicitur secundum magis et minus, secundum actum supervenientem; puta secundum scientiam vel virtutem. Reply Obj. 3: Again, goodness is spoken of as more or less according to a thing’s superadded actuality, for example, as to knowledge or virtue. Articulus 2 Article 2 Utrum bonum secundum rationem sit prius quam ens Whether goodness is prior in idea to being? Ad secundum sic proceditur. Videtur quod bonum secundum rationem sit prius quam ens. Ordo enim nominum est secundum ordinem rerum significatarum per nomina. Sed Dionysius, inter alia nomina Dei, prius ponit bonum quam ens, ut patet, in III cap. de Div. Nom. Ergo bonum secundum rationem est prius quam ens. Objection 1: It seems that goodness is prior in idea to being. For names are arranged according to the arrangement of the things signified by the names. But Dionysius (Div. Nom. iii) assigned the first place, among the other names of God, to His goodness rather than to His being. Therefore in idea goodness is prior to being. Praeterea, illud est prius secundum rationem, quod ad plura se extendit. Sed bonum ad plura se extendit quam ens, quia, ut dicit Dionysius, V cap. de Div. Nom., bonum se extendit ad existentia et non existentia, ens vero ad existentia tantum. Ergo bonum est prius secundum rationem quam ens. Obj. 2: Further, that which is the more extensive is prior in idea. But goodness is more extensive than being, because, as Dionysius notes (Div. Nom. v), goodness extends to things both existing and non-existing; whereas existence extends to existing things alone. Therefore goodness is in idea prior to being. Praeterea, quod est universalius, est prius secundum rationem. Sed bonum videtur universalius esse quam ens, quia bonum habet rationem appetibilis; quibusdam autem appetibile est ipsum non esse; dicitur enim, Matth. XXVI, de Iuda, bonum erat ei, si natus non fuisset et cetera. Ergo bonum est prius quam ens, secundum rationem. Obj. 3: Further, what is the more universal is prior in idea. But goodness seems to be more universal than being, since goodness has the aspect of desirable; whereas to some non-existence is desirable; for it is said of Judas: It were better for him, if that man had not been born (Matt 26:24). Therefore in idea goodness is prior to being. Praeterea, non solum esse est appetibile, sed et vita et sapientia, et multa huiusmodi, et sic videtur quod esse sit quoddam particulare appetibile, et bonum, universale. Bonum ergo simpliciter est prius secundum rationem quam ens. Obj. 4: Further, not only is existence desirable, but life, knowledge, and many other things besides. Thus it seems that existence is a particular appetible, and goodness a universal appetible. Therefore, absolutely, goodness is prior in idea to being. Sed contra est quod dicitur in libro de causis, quod prima rerum creatarum est esse. On the contrary, It is said by Aristotle (De Causis) that the first of created things is being. Respondeo dicendum quod ens secundum rationem est prius quam bonum. Ratio enim significata per nomen, est id quod concipit intellectus de re, et significat illud per vocem, illud ergo est prius secundum rationem, quod prius cadit in conceptione intellectus. Primo autem in conceptione intellectus cadit ens, quia secundum hoc unumquodque cognoscibile est, inquantum est actu, ut dicitur in IX Metaphys. Unde ens est proprium obiectum intellectus, et sic est primum intelligibile, sicut sonus est primum audibile. Ita ergo secundum rationem prius est ens quam bonum. I answer that, In idea being is prior to goodness. For the meaning signified by the name of a thing is that which the mind conceives of the thing and intends by the word that stands for it. Therefore, that is prior in idea, which is first conceived by the intellect. Now the first thing conceived by the intellect is being; because everything is knowable only inasmuch as it is in actuality. Hence, being is the proper object of the intellect, and is primarily intelligible; as sound is that which is primarily audible. Therefore in idea being is prior to goodness. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod Dionysius determinat de divinis nominibus secundum quod important circa Deum habitudinem causae, nominamus enim Deum, ut ipse dicit, ex creaturis, sicut causamex effectibus. Bonum autem, cum habeat rationem appetibilis, importat habitudinem causae finalis, cuius causalitas prima est, quia agens non agit nisi propter finem, et ab agente materia movetur ad formam, unde dicitur quod finis est causa causarum. Et sic, in causando, bonum est prius quam ens, sicut finis quam forma, et hac ratione, inter nomina significantia causalitatem divinam, prius ponitur bonum quam ens. Reply Obj. 1: Dionysius discusses the Divine Names (Div. Nom. i, iii) as implying some causal relation in God; for we name God, as he says, from creatures, as a cause from its effects. But goodness, since it has the aspect of desirable, implies the idea of a final cause, the causality of which is first among causes, since an agent does not act except for some end; and by an agent matter is moved to its form. Hence the end is called the cause of causes. Thus goodness, as a cause, is prior to being, as is the end to the form. Therefore among the names signifying the divine causality, goodness precedes being. Et iterum quia, secundum Platonicos, qui, materiam a privatione non distinguentes, dicebant materiam esse non ens, ad plura se extendit participatio boni quam participatio entis. Nam materia prima participat bonum, cum appetat ipsum (nihil autem appetit nisi simile sibi), non autem participat ens, cum ponatur non ens. Et ideo dicit Dionysius quod bonum extenditur ad non existentia. Again, according to the Platonists, who, through not distinguishing primary matter from privation, said that matter was non-being, goodness is more extensively participated than being; for primary matter participates in goodness as tending to it, for all seek their like; but it does not participate in being, since it is presumed to be non-being. Therefore Dionysius says that goodness extends to non-existence (Div. Nom. v). Unde patet solutio ad secundum. Reply Obj. 2: The same solution is applied to this objection. Vel dicendum quod bonum extenditur ad existentia et non existentia, non secundum praedicationem, sed secundum causalitatem, ut per non existentia intelligamus, non ea simpliciter quae penitus non sunt, sed ea quae sunt in potentia et non in actu, quia bonum habet rationem finis, in quo non solum quiescunt quae sunt in actu, sed ad ipsum etiam ea moventur quae in actu non sunt sed in potentia tantum. Ens autem non importat habitudinem causae nisi formalis tantum, vel inhaerentis vel exemplaris, cuius causalitas non se extendit nisi ad ea quae sunt in actu. Or it may be said that goodness extends to existing and non-existing things, not so far as it can be predicated of them, but so far as it can cause them—if, indeed, by non-existence we understand not simply those things which do not exist, but those which are potential, and not actual. For goodness has the aspect of the end, in which not only actual things find their completion, but also towards which tend even those things which are not actual, but merely potential. Now being implies the habitude of a formal cause only, either inherent or exemplar; and its causality does not extend save to those things which are actual. Ad tertium dicendum quod non esse secundum se non est appetibile, sed per accidens, inquantum scilicet ablatio alicuius mali est appetibilis, quod malum quidem aufertur per non esse. Ablatio vero mali non est appetibilis, nisi inquantum per malum privatur quodam esse. Illud igitur quod per se est appetibile, est esse, non esse vero per accidens tantum, inquantum scilicet quoddam esse appetitur, quo homo non sustinet privari. Et sic etiam per accidens non esse dicitur bonum. Reply Obj. 3: Non-being is desirable, not of itself, but only relatively—i.e., inasmuch as the removal of an evil, which can only be removed by non-being, is desirable. Now the removal of an evil cannot be desirable, except so far as this evil deprives a thing of some being. Therefore being is desirable of itself; and non-being only relatively, inasmuch as one seeks some mode of being of which one cannot bear to be deprived; thus even non-being can be spoken of as relatively good. Ad quartum dicendum quod vita et scientia, et alia huiusmodi, sic appetuntur ut sunt in actu, unde in omnibus appetitur quoddam esse. Et sic nihil est appetibile nisi ens, et per consequens nihil est bonum nisi ens. Reply Obj. 4: Life, wisdom, and the like, are desirable only so far as they are actual. Hence, in each one of them some sort of being is desired. And thus nothing can be desired except being; and consequently nothing is good except being. Articulus 3 Article 3 Utrum omne ens sit bonum Whether every being is good? Ad tertium sic proceditur. Videtur quod non omne ens sit bonum. Bonum enim addit supra ens, ut ex dictis patet. Ea vero quae addunt aliquid supra ens, contrahunt ipsum, sicut substantia, quantitas, qualitas, et alia huiusmodi. Ergo bonum contrahit ens. Non igitur omne ens est bonum. Objection 1: It seems that not every being is good. For goodness is something superadded to being, as is clear from A. 1. But whatever is added to being limits it; as substance, quantity, quality, etc. Therefore goodness limits being. Therefore not every being is good. Praeterea, nullum malum est bonum, Isaiae V, vae qui dicitis malum bonum, et bonum malum. Sed aliquod ens dicitur malum. Ergo non omne ens est bonum. Obj. 2: Further, no evil is good: Woe to you that call evil good and good evil (Isa 5:20). But some things are called evil. Therefore not every being is good. Praeterea, bonum habet rationem appetibilis. Sed materia prima non habet rationem appetibilis, sed appetentis tantum. Ergo materia prima non habet rationem boni. Non igitur omne ens est bonum. Obj. 3: Further, goodness implies desirability. Now primary matter does not imply desirability, but rather that which desires. Therefore primary matter does not contain the formality of goodness. Therefore not every being is good. Praeterea, Philosophus dicit, in III Metaphys., quod in mathematicis non est bonum. Sed mathematica sunt quaedam entia, alioquin de eis non esset scientia. Ergo non omne ens est bonum. Obj. 4: Further, the Philosopher notes (Metaph. iii) that in mathematics goodness does not exist. But mathematics are entities; otherwise there would be no science of mathematics. Therefore not every being is good. Sed contra, omne ens quod non est Deus, est Dei creatura. Sed omnis creatura Dei est bona, ut dicitur I ad Tim., IV cap., Deus vero est maxime bonus. Ergo omne ens est bonum. On the contrary, Every being that is not God is God’s creature. Now every creature of God is good (1 Tim 4:4): and God is the greatest good. Therefore every being is good. Respondeo dicendum quod omne ens, inquantum est ens, est bonum. Omne enim ens, inquantum est ens, est in actu, et quodammodo perfectum, quia omnis actus perfectio quaedam est. Perfectum vero habet rationem appetibilis et boni, ut ex dictis patet. Unde sequitur omne ens, inquantum huiusmodi, bonum esse. I answer that, Every being, as being, is good. For all being, as being, has actuality and is in some way perfect; since every act implies some sort of perfection; and perfection implies desirability and goodness, as is clear from A. 1. Hence it follows that every being as such is good. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod substantia, quantitas et qualitas, et ea quae sub eis continentur, contrahunt ens applicando ens ad aliquam quidditatem seu naturam. Sic autem non addit aliquid bonum super ens, sed rationem tantum appetibilis et perfectionis, quod convenit ipsi esse in quacumque natura sit. Unde bonum non contrahit ens. Reply Obj. 1: Substance, quantity, quality, and everything included in them, limit being by applying it to some essence or nature. Now in this sense, goodness does not add anything to being beyond the aspect of desirability and perfection, which is also proper to being, whatever kind of nature it may be. Hence goodness does not limit being. Ad secundum dicendum quod nullum ens dicitur malum inquantum est ens, sed inquantum caret quodam esse, sicut homo dicitur malus inquantum caret esse virtutis, et oculus dicitur malus inquantum caret acumine visus. Reply Obj. 2: No being can be spoken of as evil, formally as being, but only so far as it lacks being. Thus a man is said to be evil, because he lacks some virtue; and an eye is said to be evil, because it lacks the power to see well.