Ad quartum dicendum quod mathematica non subsistunt separata secundum esse, quia si subsisterent, esset in eis bonum, scilicet ipsum esse ipsorum. Sunt autem mathematica separata secundum rationem tantum, prout abstrahuntur a motu et a materia, et sic abstrahuntur a ratione finis, qui habet rationem moventis. Non est autem inconveniens quod in aliquo ente secundum rationem non sit bonum vel ratio boni, cum ratio entis sit prior quam ratio boni, sicut supra dictum est. Reply Obj. 4: Mathematical entities do not subsist as realities; because they would be in some sort good if they subsisted; but they have only logical existence, inasmuch as they are abstracted from motion and matter; thus they cannot have the aspect of an end, which itself has the aspect of moving another. Nor is it repugnant that there should be in some logical entity neither goodness nor form of goodness; since the idea of being is prior to the idea of goodness, as was said in the preceding article. Articulus 4 Article 4 Utrum bonum habeat rationem causae finalis, sed magis aliarum Whether goodness has the aspect of a final cause, or of the others? Ad quartum sic proceditur. Videtur quod bonum non habeat rationem causae finalis, sed magis aliarum. Ut enim dicit Dionysius, IV cap. de Div. Nom., bonum laudatur ut pulchrum. Sed pulchrum importat rationem causae formalis. Ergo bonum habet rationem causae formalis. Objection 1: It seems that goodness has not the aspect of a final cause, but rather of the other causes. For, as Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv), Goodness is praised as beauty. But beauty has the aspect of a formal cause. Therefore goodness has the aspect of a formal cause. Praeterea, bonum est diffusivum sui esse, ut ex verbis Dionysii accipitur, quibus dicit quod bonum est ex quo omnia subsistunt et sunt. Sed esse diffusivum importat rationem causae efficientis. Ergo bonum habet rationem causae efficientis. Obj. 2: Further, goodness is self-diffusive; for Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv) that goodness is that whereby all things subsist, and are. But to be self-giving implies the aspect of an efficient cause. Therefore goodness has the aspect of an efficient cause. Praeterea, dicit Augustinus in I de Doctr. Christ., quod quia Deus bonus est, nos sumus. Sed ex Deo sumus sicut ex causa efficiente. Ergo bonum importat rationem causae efficientis. Obj. 3: Further, Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 31) that we exist because God is good. But we owe our existence to God as the efficient cause. Therefore goodness implies the aspect of an efficient cause. Sed contra est quod Philosophus dicit, in II Physic., quod illud cuius causa est, est sicut finis et bonum aliorum. Bonum ergo habet rationem causae finalis. On the contrary, The Philosopher says (Phys. ii) that that is to be considered as the end and the good of other things, for the sake of which something is. Therefore goodness has the aspect of a final cause. Respondeo dicendum quod, cum bonum sit quod omnia appetunt, hoc autem habet rationem finis; manifestum est quod bonum rationem finis importat. I answer that, Since goodness is that which all things desire, and since this has the aspect of an end, it is clear that goodness implies the aspect of an end. Sed tamen ratio boni praesupponit rationem causae efficientis, et rationem causae formalis. Videmus enim quod id quod est primum in causando, ultimum est in causato, ignis enim primo calefacit quam formam ignis inducat, cum tamen calor in igne consequatur formam substantialem. In causando autem, primum invenitur bonum et finis, qui movet efficientem; secundo, actio efficientis, movens ad formam; tertio advenit forma. Unde e converso esse oportet in causato, quod primum sit ipsa forma, per quam est ens; secundo consideratur in ea virtus effectiva, secundum quod est perfectum in esse (quia unumquodque tunc perfectum est, quando potest sibi simile facere, ut dicit Philosophus in IV Meteor.); tertio consequitur ratio boni, per quam in ente perfectio fundatur. Nevertheless, the idea of goodness presupposes the idea of an efficient cause, and also of a formal cause. For we see that what is first in causing, is last in the thing caused. Fire, e.g., heats first of all before it reproduces the form of fire; though the heat in the fire follows from its substantial form. Now in causing, goodness and the end come first, both of which move the agent to act; second, the action of the agent moving to the form; third, comes the form. Hence in that which is caused the converse ought to take place, so that there should be first, the form whereby it is a being; second, we consider in it its effective power, whereby it is perfect in being, for a thing is perfect when it can reproduce its like, as the Philosopher says (Meteor. iv); third, there follows the formality of goodness which is the basic principle of its perfection. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod pulchrum et bonum in subiecto quidem sunt idem, quia super eandem rem fundantur, scilicet super formam, et propter hoc, bonum laudatur ut pulchrum. Sed ratione differunt. Nam bonum proprie respicit appetitum, est enim bonum quod omnia appetunt. Et ideo habet rationem finis, nam appetitus est quasi quidam motus ad rem. Pulchrum autem respicit vim cognoscitivam, pulchra enim dicuntur quae visa placent. Unde pulchrum in debita proportione consistit, quia sensus delectatur in rebus debite proportionatis, sicut in sibi similibus; nam et sensus ratio quaedam est, et omnis virtus cognoscitiva. Et quia cognitio fit per assimilationem, similitudo autem respicit formam, pulchrum proprie pertinet ad rationem causae formalis. Reply Obj. 1: Beauty and goodness in a thing are identical fundamentally; for they are based upon the same thing, namely, the form; and consequently goodness is praised as beauty. But they differ logically, for goodness properly relates to the appetite (goodness being what all things desire); and therefore it has the aspect of an end (the appetite being a kind of movement towards a thing). On the other hand, beauty relates to the cognitive faculty; for beautiful things are those which please when seen. Hence beauty consists in due proportion; for the senses delight in things duly proportioned, as in what is after their own kind—because even sense is a sort of reason, just as is every cognitive faculty. Now since knowledge is by assimilation, and similarity relates to form, beauty properly belongs to the nature of a formal cause. Ad secundum dicendum quod bonum dicitur diffusivum sui esse, eo modo quo finis dicitur movere. Reply Obj. 2: Goodness is described as self-diffusive in the sense that an end is said to move. Ad tertium dicendum quod quilibet habens voluntatem, dicitur bonus inquantum habet bonam voluntatem, quia per voluntatem utimur omnibus quae in nobis sunt. Unde non dicitur bonus homo, qui habet bonum intellectum, sed qui habet bonam voluntatem. Voluntas autem respicit finem ut obiectum proprium, et sic, quod dicitur, quia Deus est bonus, sumus, refertur ad causam finalem. Reply Obj. 3: He who has a will is said to be good, so far as he has a good will; because it is by our will that we employ whatever powers we may have. Hence a man is said to be good, not by his good understanding; but by his good will. Now the will relates to the end as to its proper object. Thus the saying, we exist because God is good has reference to the final cause. Articulus 5 Article 5 Utrum ratio boni consistat in modo, specie, et ordine Whether the essence of goodness consists in mode, species and order? Ad quintum sic proceditur. Videtur quod ratio boni non consistat in modo, specie, et ordine. Bonum enim et ens ratione differunt, ut supra dictum est. Sed modus, species, et ordo pertinere ad rationem entis videntur, quia, sicut dicitur Sap. XI, omnia in numero, pondere et mensura disposuisti, ad quae tria reducuntur species, modus, et ordo, quia, ut dicit Augustinus, IV super Gen. ad litteram, mensura omni rei modum praefigit, et numerus omni rei speciem praebet, et pondus omnem rem ad quietem et stabilitatem trahit. Ergo ratio boni non consistit in modo, specie et ordine. Objection 1: It seems that the essence of goodness does not consist in mode, species and order. For goodness and being differ logically. But mode, species and order seem to belong to the nature of being, for it is written: Thou hast ordered all things in measure, and number, and weight (Wis 11:21). And to these three can be reduced species, mode and order, as Augustine says (Gen ad lit. iv, 3): Measure fixes the mode of everything, number gives it its species, and weight gives it rest and stability. Therefore the essence of goodness does not consist in mode, species and order. Praeterea, ipse modus, species, et ordo bona quaedam sunt. Si ergo ratio boni consistit in modo, specie et ordine, oportet etiam quod modus habeat modum, speciem et ordinem, et similiter species et ordo. Ergo procederetur in infinitum. Obj. 2: Further, mode, species and order are themselves good. Therefore if the essence of goodness consists in mode, species and order, then every mode must have its own mode, species and order. The same would be the case with species and order in endless succession. Praeterea, malum est privatio modi et speciei et ordinis. Sed malum non tollit totaliter bonum. Ergo ratio boni non consistit in modo, specie, et ordine. Obj. 3: Further, evil is the privation of mode, species and order. But evil is not the total absence of goodness. Therefore the essence of goodness does not consist in mode, species and order. Praeterea, illud in quo consistit ratio boni, non potest dici malum. Sed dicitur malus modus, mala species, malus ordo. Ergo ratio boni non consistit in modo, specie, et ordine. Obj. 4: Further, that wherein consists the essence of goodness cannot be spoken of as evil. Yet we can speak of an evil mode, species and order. Therefore the essence of goodness does not consist in mode, species and order. Praeterea, modus, species, et ordo ex pondere, numero, et mensura causantur, ut ex auctoritate Augustini inducta patet. Non autem omnia bona habent pondus, numerum, et mensuram, dicit enim Ambrosius, in Hexaemeron, quod lucis natura est, ut non in numero, non in pondere, non in mensura creata sit. Non ergo ratio boni consistit in modo, specie, et ordine. Obj. 5: Further, mode, species and order are caused by weight, number and measure, as appears from the quotation from Augustine. But not every good thing has weight, number and measure; for Ambrose says (Hexam. i, 9): It is of the nature of light not to have been created in number, weight and measure. Therefore the essence of goodness does not consist in mode, species and order. Sed contra est quod dicit Augustinus, in libro de natura boni, haec tria, modus, species, et ordo, tanquam generalia bona sunt in rebus a Deo factis, et ita, haec tria ubi magna sunt, magna bona sunt; ubi parva, parva bona sunt; ubi nulla, nullum bonum est. Quod non esset, nisi ratio boni in eis consisteret. Ergo ratio boni consistit in modo, specie, et ordine. On the contrary, Augustine says (De Nat. Boni. iii): These three—mode, species and order—as common good things, are in everything God has made; thus, where these three abound the things are very good; where they are less, the things are less good; where they do not exist at all, there can be nothing good. But this would not be unless the essence of goodness consisted in them. Therefore the essence of goodness consists in mode, species and order. Respondeo dicendum quod unumquodque dicitur bonum, inquantum est perfectum, sic enim est appetibile, ut supra dictum est. Perfectum autem dicitur, cui nihil deest secundum modum suae perfectionis. Cum autem unumquodque sit id quod est, per suam formam; forma autem praesupponit quaedam, et quaedam ad ipsam ex necessitate consequuntur; ad hoc quod aliquid sit perfectum et bonum, necesse est quod formam habeat, et ea quae praeexiguntur ad eam, et ea quae consequuntur ad ipsam. I answer that, Everything is said to be good so far as it is perfect; for in that way only is it desirable (as shown above, AA. 1, 3). Now a thing is said to be perfect if it lacks nothing according to the mode of its perfection. But since everything is what it is by its form (and since the form presupposes certain things, and from the form certain things necessarily follow), in order for a thing to be perfect and good it must have a form, together with all that precedes and follows upon that form. Praeexigitur autem ad formam determinatio sive commensuratio principiorum, seu materialium, seu efficientium ipsam, et hoc significatur per modum, unde dicitur quod mensura modum praefigit. Ipsa autem forma significatur per speciem, quia per formam unumquodque in specie constituitur. Et propter hoc dicitur quod numerus speciem praebet, quia definitiones significantes speciem sunt sicut numeri, secundum Philosophum in VIII Metaphys.; sicut enim unitas addita vel subtracta variat speciem numeri, ita in definitionibus differentia apposita vel subtracta. Ad formam autem consequitur inclinatio ad finem, aut ad actionem, aut ad aliquid huiusmodi, quia unumquodque, inquantum est actu, agit, et tendit in id quod sibi convenit secundum suam formam. Et hoc pertinet ad pondus et ordinem. Unde ratio boni, secundum quod consistit in perfectione, consistit etiam in modo, specie, et ordine. Now the form presupposes determination or commensuration of its principles, whether material or efficient, and this is signified by the mode: hence it is said that the measure marks the mode. But the form itself is signified by the species; for everything is placed in its species by its form. Hence the number is said to give the species, for definitions signifying species are like numbers, according to the Philosopher (Metaph. viii); for as a unit added to, or taken from a number, changes its species, so a difference added to, or taken from a definition, changes its species. Further, upon the form follows an inclination to the end, or to an action, or something of the sort; for everything, in so far as it is in act, acts and tends towards that which is in accordance with its form; and this belongs to weight and order. Hence the essence of goodness, so far as it consists in perfection, consists also in mode, species and order. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod ista tria non consequuntur ens, nisi inquantum est perfectum, et secundum hoc est bonum. Reply Obj. 1: These three only follow upon being, so far as it is perfect, and according to this perfection is it good. Ad secundum dicendum quod modus, species, et ordo eo modo dicuntur bona, sicut et entia, non quia ipsa sint quasi subsistentia, sed quia eis alia sunt et entia et bona. Unde non oportet quod ipsa habeant aliqua alia, quibus sint bona. Non enim sic dicuntur bona, quasi formaliter aliis sint bona; sed quia ipsis formaliter aliqua sunt bona; sicut albedo non dicitur ens quia ipsa aliquo sit, sed quia ipsa aliquid est secundum quid, scilicet album. Reply Obj. 2: Mode, species and order are said to be good, and to be beings, not as though they themselves were subsistences, but because it is through them that other things are both beings and good. Hence they have no need of other things whereby they are good: for they are spoken of as good, not as though formally constituted so by something else, but as formally constituting others good: thus whiteness is not said to be a being as though it were by anything else; but because, by it, something else has accidental being, as an object that is white. Ad tertium dicendum quod quodlibet esse est secundum formam aliquam, unde secundum quodlibet esse rei, consequuntur ipsam modus, species, et ordo, sicut homo habet speciem, modum et ordinem, inquantum est homo; et similiter inquantum est albus, habet similiter modum, speciem, et ordinem; et inquantum est virtuosus, et inquantum est sciens, et secundum omnia quae de ipso dicuntur. Malum autem privat quodam esse, sicut caecitas privat esse visus, unde non tollit omnem modum, speciem, et ordinem; sed solum modum, speciem, et ordinem quae consequuntur esse visus. Reply Obj. 3: Every being is due to some form. Hence, according to every being of a thing is its mode, species, order. Thus, a man has a mode, species and order as he is white, virtuous, learned and so on; according to everything predicated of him. But evil deprives a thing of some sort of being, as blindness deprives us of that being which is sight; yet it does not destroy every mode, species and order, but only such as follow upon the being of sight. Ad quartum dicendum quod, sicut dicit Augustinus in libro de natura boni, omnis modus, inquantum modus, bonus est (et sic potest dici de specie et ordine), sed malus modus, vel mala species, vel malus ordo, aut ideo dicuntur quia minora sunt quam esse debuerunt; aut quia non his rebus accommodantur, quibus accommodanda sunt; ut ideo dicantur mala, quia sunt aliena et incongrua. Reply Obj. 4: Augustine says (De Nat. Boni. xxiii), Every mode, as mode, is good (and the same can be said of species and order). But an evil mode, species and order are so called as being less than they ought to be, or as not belonging to that which they ought to belong. Therefore they are called evil, because they are out of place and incongruous. Ad quintum dicendum quod natura lucis dicitur esse sine numero et pondere et mensura, non simpliciter, sed per comparationem ad corporalia, quia virtus lucis ad omnia corporalia se extendit, inquantum est qualitas activa primi corporis alterantis, scilicet caeli. Reply Obj. 5: The nature of light is spoken of as being without number, weight and measure, not absolutely, but in comparison with corporeal things, because the power of light extends to all corporeal things; inasmuch as it is an active quality of the first body that causes change, i.e., the heavens. Articulus 6 Article 6 Utrum convenienter dividatur bonum per honestum, utile, et delectabile Whether goodness is rightly divided into the virtuous, the useful and the pleasant? Ad sextum sic proceditur. Videtur quod non convenienter dividatur bonum per honestum, utile, et delectabile. Bonum enim, sicut dicit philosophus in I Ethic., dividitur per decem praedicamenta. Honestum autem, utile, et delectabile inveniri possunt in uno praedicamento. Ergo non convenienter per haec dividitur bonum. Objection 1: It seems that goodness is not rightly divided into the virtuous, the useful and the pleasant. For goodness is divided by the ten predicaments, as the Philosopher says (Ethic. i). But the virtuous, the useful and the pleasant can be found under one predicament. Therefore goodness is not rightly divided by them. Praeterea, omnis divisio fit per opposita. Sed haec tria non videntur esse opposita, nam honesta sunt delectabilia, nullumque inhonestum est utile (quod tamen oportet, si divisio fieret per opposita, ut opponerentur honestum et utile), ut etiam dicit Tullius, in libro de officiis. Ergo praedicta divisio non est conveniens. Obj. 2: Further, every division is made by opposites. But these three do not seem to be opposites; for the virtuous is pleasing, and no wickedness is useful; whereas this ought to be the case if the division were made by opposites, for then the virtuous and the useful would be opposed; and Tully speaks of this (De Offic. ii). Therefore this division is incorrect. Praeterea, ubi unum propter alterum, ibi unum tantum est. Sed utile non est bonum nisi propter delectabile vel honestum. Ergo non debet utile dividi contra delectabile et honestum. Obj. 3: Further, where one thing is on account of another, there is only one thing. But the useful is not goodness, except so far as it is pleasing and virtuous. Therefore the useful ought not to be divided against the pleasant and the virtuous. Sed contra est quod Ambrosius, in libro de officiis, utitur ista divisione boni. On the contrary, Ambrose makes use of this division of goodness (De Offic. i, 9). Respondeo dicendum quod haec divisio proprie videtur esse boni humani. Si tamen altius et communius rationem boni consideremus, invenitur haec divisio proprie competere bono, secundum quod bonum est. I answer that, This division properly concerns human goodness. But if we consider the nature of goodness from a higher and more universal point of view, we shall find that this division properly concerns goodness as such. Nam bonum est aliquid, inquantum est appetibile, et terminus motus appetitus. Cuius quidem motus terminatio considerari potest ex consideratione motus corporis naturalis. Terminatur autem motus corporis naturalis, simpliciter quidem ad ultimum; secundum quid autem etiam ad medium, per quod itur ad ultimum quod terminat motum, et dicitur aliquis terminus motus, inquantum aliquam partem motus terminat. Id autem quod est ultimus terminus motus, potest accipi dupliciter, vel ipsa res in quam tenditur, utpote locus vel forma; vel quies in re illa. For everything is good so far as it is desirable, and is a term of the movement of the appetite; the term of whose movement can be seen from a consideration of the movement of a natural body. Now the movement of a natural body is terminated by the end absolutely; and relatively by the means through which it comes to the end, where the movement ceases; so a thing is called a term of movement, so far as it terminates any part of that movement. Now the ultimate term of movement can be taken in two ways, either as the thing itself towards which it tends, e.g., a place or form; or a state of rest in that thing. Sic ergo in motu appetitus, id quod est appetibile terminans motum appetitus secundum quid, ut medium per quod tenditur in aliud, vocatur utile. Id autem quod appetitur ut ultimum, terminans totaliter motum appetitus, sicut quaedam res in quam per se appetitus tendit, vocatur honestum, quia honestum dicitur quod per se desideratur. Id autem quod terminat motum appetitus ut quies in re desiderata, est delectatio. Thus, in the movement of the appetite, the thing desired that terminates the movement of the appetite relatively, as a means by which something tends towards another, is called the useful; but that sought after as the last thing absolutely terminating the movement of the appetite, as a thing towards which for its own sake the appetite tends, is called the virtuous; for the virtuous is that which is desired for its own sake; but that which terminates the movement of the appetite in the form of rest in the thing desired, is called the pleasant.