Quaestio 68 Question 68 De opere secundae diei The Work of the Second Day Deinde considerandum est de opere secundae diei. Et circa hoc quaeruntur quatuor. We must next consider the work of the second day. Under this head there are four points of inquiry: Primo, utrum firmamentum sit factum secunda die. (1) Whether the firmament was made on the second day? Secundo, utrum aliquae aquae sint supra firmamentum. (2) Whether there are waters above the firmament? Tertio, utrum firmamentum dividat aquas ab aquis. (3) Whether the firmament divides waters from waters? Quarto, utrum sit unum caelum tantum, vel plures. (4) Whether there is more than one heaven? Articulus 1 Article 1 Utrum firmamentum sit factum secunda die Whether the firmament was made on the second day? Ad primum sic proceditur. Videtur quod firmamentum non sit factum secunda die. Dicitur enim Gen. I, vocavit Deus firmamentum caelum. Sed caelum factum est ante omnem diem, ut patet cum dicitur, in principio creavit Deus caelum et terram. Ergo firmamentum non est factum secunda die. Objection 1: It would seem that the firmament was not made on the second day. For it is said (Gen 1:8): God called the firmament heaven. But the heaven existed before days, as is clear from the words, In the beginning God created heaven and earth. Therefore the firmament was not made on the second day. Praeterea, opera sex dierum ordinantur secundum ordinem divinae sapientiae. Non conveniret autem divinae sapientiae, ut posterius faceret quod est naturaliter prius. Firmamentum autem est naturaliter prius aqua et terra, de quibus tamen fit mentio ante formationem lucis, quae fuit prima die. Non ergo firmamentum factum est secunda die. Obj. 2: Further, the work of the six days is ordered conformably to the order of Divine wisdom. Now it would ill become the Divine wisdom to make afterwards that which is naturally first. But though the firmament naturally precedes the earth and the waters, these are mentioned before the formation of light, which was on the first day. Therefore the firmament was not made on the second day. Praeterea, omne quod est factum per sex dies, formatum est ex materia prius creata ante omnem diem. Sed firmamentum non potuit formari ex materia praeexistente, quia sic esset generabile et corruptibile. Ergo firmamentum non est factum secunda die. Obj. 3: Further, all that was made in the six days was formed out of matter created before days began. But the firmament cannot have been formed out of pre-existing matter, for if so it would be liable to generation and corruption. Therefore the firmament was not made on the second day. Sed contra est quod dicitur Gen. I, dixit Deus, fiat firmamentum. Et postea sequitur, et factum est vespere et mane dies secundus. On the contrary, It is written (Gen 1:6): God said: let there be a firmament, and further on (verse 8); And the evening and morning were the second day. Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut Augustinus docet, in huiusmodi quaestionibus duo sunt observanda. Primo quidem, ut veritas Scripturae inconcusse teneatur. Secundo, cum Scriptura divina multipliciter exponi possit, quod nulli expositioni aliquis ita praecise inhaereat quod, si certa ratione constiterit hoc esse falsum, quod aliquis sensum Scripturae esse asserere praesumat, ne Scriptura ex hoc ab infidelibus derideatur, et ne eis via credendi praecludatur. I answer that, In discussing questions of this kind two rules are to be observed, as Augustine teaches (Gen ad lit. i, 18). The first is, to hold the truth of Scripture without wavering. The second is that since Holy Scripture can be explained in a multiplicity of senses, one should adhere to a particular explanation, only in such measure as to be ready to abandon it, if it be proved with certainty to be false; lest Holy Scripture be exposed to the ridicule of unbelievers, and obstacles be placed to their believing. Sciendum est ergo quod hoc quod legitur firmamentum secunda die factum, dupliciter intelligi potest. Uno modo, de firmamento in quo sunt sidera. Et secundum hoc, oportet nos diversimode exponere secundum diversas opiniones hominum de firmamento. Quidam enim dixerunt firmamentum illud esse ex elementis compositum. Et haec fuit opinio Empedoclis, qui tamen dixit ideo illud corpus indissolubile esse, quia in eius compositione lis non erat sed amicitia tantum. Alii vero dixerunt firmamentum esse de natura quatuor elementorum non quasi ex elementis compositum, sed quasi elementum simplex. Et haec opinio fuit Platonis, qui posuit corpus caeleste esse elementum ignis. Alii vero dixerunt caelum non esse de natura quatuor elementorum, sed esse quintum corpus, praeter quatuor elementa. Et haec est opinio Aristotelis. We say, therefore, that the words which speak of the firmament as made on the second day can be understood in two senses. They may be understood, first, of the starry firmament, on which point it is necessary to set forth the different opinions of philosophers. Some of these believed it to be composed of the elements; and this was the opinion of Empedocles, who, however, held further that the body of the firmament was not susceptible of dissolution, because its parts are, so to say, not in disunion, but in harmony. Others held the firmament to be of the nature of the four elements, not, indeed, compounded of them, but being as it were a simple element. Such was the opinion of Plato, who held that element to be fire. Others, again, have held that the heaven is not of the nature of the four elements, but is itself a fifth body, existing over and above these. This is the opinion of Aristotle (De Coel. i, text. 6,32). Secundum igitur primam opinionem, absolute posset concedi quod firmamentum factum fuerit secunda die, etiam secundum suam substantiam. Nam ad opus creationis pertinet producere ipsam elementorum substantiam, ad opus autem distinctionis et ornatus pertinet formare aliqua ex praeexistentibus elementis. According to the first opinion, it may, strictly speaking, be granted that the firmament was made, even as to substance, on the second day. For it is part of the work of creation to produce the substance of the elements, while it belongs to the work of distinction and adornment to give forms to the elements that pre-exist. Secundum vero opinionem Platonis, non est conveniens quod firmamentum credatur secundum suam substantiam esse factum secunda die. Nam facere firmamentum, secundum hoc, est producere elementum ignis. Productio autem elementorum pertinet ad opus creationis, secundum eos qui ponunt informitatem materiae tempore praecedere formationem, quia formae elementorum sunt quae primo adveniunt materiae. But the belief that the firmament was made, as to its substance, on the second day is incompatible with the opinion of Plato, according to whom the making of the firmament implies the production of the element of fire. This production, however, belongs to the work of creation, at least, according to those who hold that formlessness of matter preceded in time its formation, since the first form received by matter is the elemental. Multo autem minus secundum opinionem Aristotelis poni potest quod firmamentum secundum suam substantiam sit secunda die productum, secundum quod per istos dies successio temporis designatur. Quia caelum, cum sit secundum suam naturam incorruptibile, habet materiam quae non potest subesse alteri formae, unde impossibile est quod firmamentum sit factum ex materia prius tempore existente. Still less compatible with the belief that the substance of the firmament was produced on the second day is the opinion of Aristotle, seeing that the mention of days denotes succession of time, whereas the firmament, being naturally incorruptible, is of a matter not susceptible of change of form; wherefore it could not be made out of matter existing antecedently in time. Unde productio substantiae firmamenti ad opus creationis pertinet. Sed aliqua formatio eius, secundum has duas opiniones, pertinet ad opus secundae diei, sicut etiam Dionysius dicit, IV cap. de Div. Nom., quod lumen solis fuit informe in primo triduo, et postea fuit in quarta die formatum. Hence to produce the substance of the firmament belongs to the work of creation. But its formation, in some degree, belongs to the second day, according to both opinions: for as Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv), the light of the sun was without form during the first three days, and afterwards, on the fourth day, received its form. Si autem per istos dies non designetur temporis successio, sed solum ordo naturae, ut Augustinus vult; nihil prohibebit dicere, secundum quamcumque harum opinionum, formationem secundum substantiam firmamenti ad secundam diem pertinere. If, however, we take these days to denote merely sequence in the natural order, as Augustine holds (Gen ad lit. iv, 22,24), and not succession in time, there is then nothing to prevent our saying, whilst holding any one of the opinions given above, that the substantial formation of the firmament belongs to the second day. Potest autem et alio modo intelligi, ut per firmamentum quod legitur secunda die factum, non intelligatur firmamentum illud in quo fixae sunt stellae, sed illa pars aeris in qua condensantur nubes. Et dicitur firmamentum propter spissitudinem aeris in parte illa, nam quod est spissum et solidum, dicitur esse corpus firmum, ad differentiam corporis mathematici, ut dicit Basilius. Et secundum hanc expositionem, nihil repugnans sequitur cuicumque opinioni. Unde Augustinus, II super Gen. ad Litt., hanc expositionem commendans, dicit, hanc considerationem laude dignissimam iudico; quod enim dixit, neque est contra fidem, et in promptu, posito documento, credi potest. Another possible explanation is to understand by the firmament that was made on the second day, not that in which the stars are set, but the part of the atmosphere where the clouds are collected, and which has received the name firmament from the firmness and density of the air. For a body is called firm, that is dense and solid, thereby differing from a mathematical body as is remarked by Basil (Hom. iii in Hexaem.). If, then, this explanation is adopted, none of these opinions will be found repugnant to reason. Augustine, in fact (Gen ad lit. ii, 4), recommends it thus: I consider this view of the question worthy of all commendation, as neither contrary to faith nor difficult to be proved and believed. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod, secundum Chrysostomum, primo Moyses summarie dixit quid Deus fecit, praemittens, in principio creavit Deus caelum et terram, postea per partes explicavit. Sicut si quis dicat, hic artifex fecit domum istam, et postea subdat, primo fecit fundamenta, et postea erexit parietes, tertio superposuit tectum. Et sic non oportet nos aliud caelum intelligere, cum dicitur, in principio creavit Deus caelum et terram; et cum dicitur quod secunda die factum est firmamentum. Reply Obj. 1: According to Chrysostom (Hom. iii in Genes.), Moses prefaces his record by speaking of the works of God collectively, in the words, In the beginning God created heaven and earth, and then proceeds to explain them part by part; in somewhat the same way as one might say: This house was constructed by that builder, and then add: First, he laid the foundations, then built the walls, and third, put on the roof. In accepting this explanation we are, therefore, not bound to hold that a different heaven is spoken of in the words: In the beginning God created heaven and earth, and when we read that the firmament was made on the second day. Potest etiam dici aliud esse caelum quod legitur in principio creatum, et quod legitur secunda die factum. Et hoc diversimode. Nam secundum Augustinum, caelum quod legitur primo die factum, est natura spiritualis informis, caelum autem quod legitur secunda die factum, est caelum corporeum. We may also say that the heaven recorded as created in the beginning is not the same as that made on the second day; and there are several senses in which this may be understood. Augustine says (Gen ad lit. i, 9) that the heaven recorded as made on the first day is the formless spiritual nature, and that the heaven of the second day is the corporeal heaven. Secundum vero Bedam et Strabum, caelum quod legitur primo die factum, est caelum Empyreum, firmamentum vero quod legitur secunda die factum, est caelum sidereum. According to Bede (Hexaem. i) and Strabus, the heaven made on the first day is the empyrean, and the firmament made on the second day, the starry heaven. Secundum vero Damascenum, caelum quod legitur prima die factum, est quoddam caelum sphaericum sine stellis, de quo philosophi loquuntur, dicentes ipsum esse nonam sphaeram et mobile primum, quod movetur motu diurno, per firmamentum vero factum secunda die, intelligitur caelum sidereum. According to Damascene (De Fide Orth. ii), that of the first day was spherical in form and without stars, the same, in fact, that the philosophers speak of, calling it the ninth sphere, and the primary movable body that moves with diurnal movement: while by the firmament made on the second day he understands the starry heaven. Secundum autem aliam expositionem, quam Augustinus tangit, caelum prima die factum, est etiam ipsum caelum sidereum, per firmamentum vero secunda die factum, intelligitur spatium aeris in quo nubes condensantur, quod etiam caelum aequivoce dicitur. Et ideo, ad aequivocationem designandam, signanter dicitur, vocavit Deus firmamentum caelum; sicut et supra dixerat, vocavit lucem diem (quia dies etiam pro spatio vigintiquatuor horarum ponitur). Et idem est in aliis observandum, ut Rabbi Moyses dicit. According to another theory, touched upon by Augustine, the heaven made on the first day was the starry heaven, and the firmament made on the second day was that region of the air where the clouds are collected, which is also called heaven, but equivocally. And to show that the word is here used in an equivocal sense, it is expressly said that God called the firmament heaven; just as in a preceding verse it said that God called the light day (since the word day is also used to denote a space of twenty-four hours). Other instances of a similar use occur, as pointed out by Rabbi Moses. Ad secundum et tertium patet solutio ex supra dictis. The second and third objections are sufficiently answered by what has been already said. Articulus 2 Article 2 Utrum aquae sunt supra firmamentum Whether there are waters above the firmament? Ad secundum sic proceditur. Videtur quod aquae non sunt supra firmamentum. Aqua enim est naturaliter gravis. Locus autem proprius gravis non est esse sursum, sed solum deorsum. Ergo aquae non sunt supra firmamentum. Objection 1: It would seem that there are not waters above the firmament. For water is heavy by nature, and heavy things tend naturally downwards, not upwards. Therefore there are not waters above the firmament. Praeterea, naturaliter aqua est fluida. Sed quod est fluidum, non potest consistere super corpus rotundum, ut experimento patet. Ergo, cum firmamentum sit corpus rotundum, aqua non potest esse supra firmamentum. Obj. 2: Further, water is fluid by nature, and fluids cannot rest on a sphere, as experience shows. Therefore, since the firmament is a sphere, there cannot be water above it. Praeterea, aqua, cum sit elementum, ordinatur ad generationem corporis mixti; sicut imperfectum ordinatur ad perfectum. Sed supra firmamentum non est locus mixtionis, sed supra terram. Ergo frustra aqua esset supra firmamentum. Nihil autem in operibus Dei est frustra. Ergo aquae non sunt supra firmamentum. Obj. 3: Further, water is an element, and appointed to the generation of composite bodies, according to the relation in which imperfect things stand towards perfect. But bodies of composite nature have their place upon the earth, and not above the firmament, so that water would be useless there. But none of God’s works are useless. Therefore there are not waters above the firmament. Sed contra est quod dicitur Gen. I, quod divisit aquas quae erant supra firmamentum, ab his quae erant sub firmamento. On the contrary, It is written (Gen 1:7): (God) divided the waters that were under the firmament, from those that were above the firmament. Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut dicit Augustinus, II super Gen. ad Litt., maior est Scripturae huius auctoritas quam omnis humani ingenii capacitas. Unde quomodo et quales aquae ibi sint, eas tamen ibi esse, minime dubitamus. Quales autem sint illae aquae, non eodem modo ab omnibus assignatur. Origenes enim dicit quod aquae illae quae super caelos sunt, sunt spirituales substantiae, unde in Psalmo CXLVIII, dicitur, aquae quae super caelos sunt, laudent nomen domini; et Dan. III, benedicite, aquae omnes quae super caelos sunt, domino. Sed ad hoc respondet Basilius, in III Hexaem., quod hoc non dicitur eo quod aquae sint rationales creaturae; sed quia consideratio earum, prudenter a sensum habentibus contemplata, glorificationem perficit creatoris. Unde ibidem dicitur idem de igne et grandine et huiusmodi, de quibus constat quod non sunt rationales creaturae. I answer with Augustine (Gen ad lit. ii, 5) that, These words of Scripture have more authority than the most exalted human intellect. Hence, whatever these waters are, and whatever their mode of existence, we cannot for a moment doubt that they are there. As to the nature of these waters, all are not agreed. Origen says (Hom. i in Gen.) that the waters that are above the firmament are spiritual substances. Wherefore it is written (Ps 148:4): Let the waters that are above the heavens praise the name of the Lord, and (Dan 3:60): Ye waters that are above the heavens, bless the Lord. To this Basil answers (Hom. iii in Hexaem.) that these words do not mean that these waters are rational creatures, but that the thoughtful contemplation of them by those who understand fulfils the glory of the Creator. Hence in the same context, fire, hail, and other like creatures, are invoked in the same way, though no one would attribute reason to these. Dicendum est ergo quod sunt aquae corporales. Sed quales aquae sint, oportet diversimode definire, secundum diversam de firmamento sententiam. Si enim per firmamentum intelligitur caelum sidereum quod ponitur esse de natura quatuor elementorum, pari ratione et aquae quae super caelos sunt eiusdem naturae poterunt credi cum elementaribus aquis. Si autem per firmamentum intelligatur caelum sidereum quod non sit de natura quatuor elementorum, tunc et aquae illae quae sunt supra firmamentum, non erunt de natura elementarium aquarum, sed sicut, secundum Strabum, dicitur caelum Empyreum, idest igneum, propter solum splendorem; ita dicetur aliud caelum aqueum propter solam diaphaneitatem, quod est supra caelum sidereum. Posito etiam quod firmamentum sit alterius naturae praeter quatuor elementa, adhuc potest dici quod aquas dividit, si per aquam non elementum aquae, sed materiam informem corporum intelligamus, ut Augustinus dicit, super Gen. contra Manich., quia secundum hoc, quidquid est inter corpora, dividit aquas ab aquis. We must hold, then, these waters to be material, but their exact nature will be differently defined according as opinions on the firmament differ. For if by the firmament we understand the starry heaven, and as being of the nature of the four elements, for the same reason it may be believed that the waters above the heaven are of the same nature as the elemental waters. But if by the firmament we understand the starry heaven, not, however, as being of the nature of the four elements, then the waters above the firmament will not be of the same nature as the elemental waters, but just as, according to Strabus, one heaven is called empyrean, that is, fiery, solely on account of its splendor: so this other heaven will be called aqueous solely on account of its transparence; and this heaven is above the starry heaven. Again, if the firmament is held to be of other nature than the elements, it may still be said to divide the waters, if we understand by water not the element but formless matter. Augustine, in fact, says (Super Gen. cont. Manich. i, 5,7) that whatever divides bodies from bodies can be said to divide waters from waters. Si autem per firmamentum intelligatur pars aeris in qua nubes condensantur, sic aquae quae supra firmamentum sunt, sunt aquae quae, vaporabiliter resolutae, supra aliquam partem aeris elevantur ex quibus pluviae generantur. Dicere enim quod aquae vaporabiliter resolutae eleventur supra caelum sidereum, ut quidam dixerunt, quorum opinionem Augustinus tangit in II super Gen. ad Litt. est omnino impossibile. Tum propter soliditatem caeli. Tum propter regionem ignis mediam, quae huiusmodi vapores consumeret. Tum quia locus quo feruntur levia et rara, est infra concavum orbis lunae. Tum etiam quia sensibiliter apparet vapores non elevari usque ad cacumina quorundam montium. Quod etiam dicunt de rarefactione corporis in infinitum, propter hoc quod corpus est in infinitum divisibile, vanum est. Non enim corpus naturale in infinitum dividitur aut rarefit, sed usque ad certum terminum. If, however, we understand by the firmament that part of the air in which the clouds are collected, then the waters above the firmament must rather be the vapors resolved from the waters which are raised above a part of the atmosphere, and from which the rain falls. But to say, as some writers alluded to by Augustine (Gen ad lit. ii, 4), that waters resolved into vapor may be lifted above the starry heaven, is a mere absurdity. The solid nature of the firmament, the intervening region of fire, wherein all vapor must be consumed, the tendency in light and rarefied bodies to drift to one spot beneath the vault of the moon, as well as the fact that vapors are perceived not to rise even to the tops of the higher mountains, all go to show the impossibility of this. Nor is it less absurd to say, in support of this opinion, that bodies may be rarefied infinitely, since natural bodies cannot be infinitely rarefied or divided, but up to a certain point only.