Alio modo potest considerari actus virtutis secundum quod comparatur ad primum motivum, quod est amor caritatis. Et ex hac parte praecipue aliquis actus habet quod ad perfectionem vitae pertineat, quia, ut apostolus dicit, Coloss. III, caritas est vinculum perfectionis. Martyrium autem, inter omnes actus virtuosos, maxime demonstrat perfectionem caritatis. Quia tanto magis ostenditur aliquis aliquam rem amare, quanto pro ea rem magis amatam contemnit, et rem magis odiosam eligit pati. Manifestum est autem quod inter omnia alia bona praesentis vitae, maxime amat homo ipsam vitam, et e contrario maxime odit ipsam mortem, et praecipue cum doloribus corporalium tormentorum, quorum metu etiam bruta animalia a maximis voluptatibus absterrentur, ut Augustinus dicit, in libro octoginta trium quaest. Et secundum hoc patet quod martyrium inter ceteros actus humanos est perfectior secundum suum genus, quasi maximae caritatis signum, secundum illud Ioan. XV, maiorem caritatem nemo habet quam ut animam suam ponat quis pro amicis suis. A virtuous act may be considered in another way, in comparison with its first motive cause, which is the love of charity, and it is in this respect that an act comes to belong to the perfection of life, since, as the Apostle says (Col 3:14), that charity . . . is the bond of perfection. Now, of all virtuous acts martyrdom is the greatest proof of the perfection of charity: since a man’s love for a thing is proved to be so much the greater, according as that which he despises for its sake is more dear to him, or that which he chooses to suffer for its sake is more odious. But it is evident that of all the goods of the present life man loves life itself most, and on the other hand he hates death more than anything, especially when it is accompanied by the pains of bodily torment, from fear of which even dumb animals refrain from the greatest pleasures, as Augustine observes (QQ. 83, qu. 36). And from this point of view it is clear that martyrdom is the most perfect of human acts in respect of its genus, as being the sign of the greatest charity, according to John 15:13: Greater love than this no man hath, that a man lay down his life for his friends. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod nullus est actus perfectionis sub consilio cadens qui in aliquo eventu non cadat sub praecepto, quasi de necessitate salutis existens, sicut Augustinus dicit, in libro de adulterinis coniugiis, quod aliquis incidit in necessitatem continentiae servandae propter absentiam vel infirmitatem uxoris. Et ideo non est contra perfectionem martyrii si in aliquo casu sit de necessitate salutis. Est enim aliquis casus in quo martyrium perferre non est de necessitate salutis, puta cum ex zelo fidei et caritate fraterna multoties leguntur sancti martyres sponte se obtulisse martyrio. Illa autem praecepta sunt intelligenda secundum praeparationem animi. Reply Obj. 1: There is no act of perfection, which is a matter of counsel, but what in certain cases is a matter of precept, as being necessary for salvation. Thus Augustine declares (De Adult. Conjug. xiii) that a man is under the obligation of observing continency, through the absence or sickness of his wife. Hence it is not contrary to the perfection of martyrdom if in certain cases it be necessary for salvation, since there are cases when it is not necessary for salvation to suffer martyrdom; thus we read of many holy martyrs who through zeal for the faith or brotherly love gave themselves up to martyrdom of their own accord. As to these precepts, they are to be understood as referring to the preparation of the mind. Ad secundum dicendum quod martyrium complectitur id quod summum in obedientia esse potest, ut scilicet aliquis sit obediens usque ad mortem, sicut de Christo legitur, Philipp. II, quod factus est obediens usque ad mortem. Unde patet quod martyrium secundum se est perfectius quam obedientia absolute dicta. Reply Obj. 2: Martyrdom embraces the highest possible degree of obedience, namely obedience unto death; thus we read of Christ (Phil 2:8) that He became obedient unto death. Hence it is evident that martyrdom is of itself more perfect than obedience considered absolutely. Ad tertium dicendum quod ratio illa procedit de martyrio secundum propriam speciem actus, ex qua non habet excellentiam inter omnes actus virtutum, sicut nec fortitudo est excellentior inter omnes virtutes. Reply Obj. 3: This argument considers martyrdom according to the proper species of its act, whence it derives no excellence over all other virtuous acts; thus neither is fortitude more excellent than all virtues. Articulus 4 Article 4 Utrum mors sit de ratione martyrii Whether death is essential to martyrdom? Ad quartum sic proceditur. Videtur quod mors non sit de ratione martyrii. Dicit enim Hieronymus, in sermone de assumptione, recte dixerim quod Dei genitrix virgo et martyr fuit, quamvis in pace vitam finierit. Et Gregorius dicit, quamvis occasio persecutionis desit, habet tamen pax suum martyrium, quia etsi carnis colla ferro non subiicimus, spirituali tamen gladio carnalia desideria in mente trucidamus. Ergo absque passione mortis potest esse martyrium. Objection 1: It seems that death is not essential to martyrdom. For Jerome says in a sermon on the Assumption (Epist. ad Paul. et Eustoch.): I should say rightly that the Mother of God was both virgin and martyr, although she ended her days in peace: and Gregory says (Hom. iii in Evang.): Although persecution has ceased to offer the opportunity, yet the peace we enjoy is not without its martyrdom, since even if we no longer yield the life of the body to the sword, yet do we slay fleshly desires in the soul with the sword of the spirit. Therefore there can be martyrdom without suffering death. Praeterea, pro integritate carnis servanda aliquae mulieres leguntur laudabiliter vitam suam contempsisse, et ita videtur quod corporalis integritas castitatis praeferatur vitae corporali. Sed quandoque ipsa integritas carnis aufertur, vel auferri intentatur, pro confessione fidei Christianae, ut patet de Agnete et Lucia. Ergo videtur quod martyrium magis debeat dici si aliqua mulier pro fide Christi integritatem carnis perdat, quam si etiam vitam perderet corporalem. Unde et Lucia dixit, si me invitam feceris violari, castitas mihi duplicabitur ad coronam. Obj. 2: Further, we read of certain women as commended for despising life for the sake of safeguarding the integrity of the flesh: wherefore seemingly the integrity of chastity is preferable to the life of the body. Now sometimes the integrity of the flesh has been forfeited or has been threatened in confession of the Christian faith, as in the case of Agnes and Lucy. Therefore it seems that the name of martyr should be accorded to a woman who forfeits the integrity of the flesh for the sake of Christ’s faith, rather than if she were to forfeit even the life of the body: wherefore also Lucy said: If thou causest me to be violated against my will, my chastity will gain me a twofold crown. Praeterea, martyrium est fortitudinis actus. Ad fortitudinem autem pertinet non solum mortem non formidare, sed nec alias adversitates, ut Augustinus dicit, in VI musicae. Sed multae sunt aliae adversitates praeter mortem, quas aliqui possunt sustinere pro fide Christi, sicut carcerem, exilium, rapinam bonorum, ut patet ad Heb. X. Unde et sancti Marcelli Papae martyrium celebratur, qui tamen fuit in carcere mortuus. Ergo non est de necessitate martyrii quod aliquis sustineat poenam mortis. Obj. 3: Further, martyrdom is an act of fortitude. But it belongs to fortitude to brave not only death but also other hardships, as Augustine declares (Music. vi). Now there are many other hardships besides death, which one may suffer for Christ’s faith, namely imprisonment, exile, being stripped of one’s goods, as mentioned in Heb. 10:34, for which reason we celebrate the martyrdom of Pope Saint Marcellus, notwithstanding that he died in prison. Therefore it is not essential to martyrdom that one suffer the pain of death. Praeterea, martyrium est actus meritorius, ut dictum est. Sed actus meritorius non potest esse post mortem. Ergo ante mortem. Et ita mors non est de ratione martyrii. Obj. 4: Further, martyrdom is a meritorious act, as stated above (A. 2, ad 1; A. 3). Now it cannot be a meritorious act after death. Therefore it is before death; and consequently death is not essential to martyrdom. Sed contra est quod Maximus dicit, in quodam sermone, de martyre, quod vincit pro fide moriendo qui vinceretur sine fide vivendo. On the contrary, Maximus says in a sermon on the martyrs that in dying for the faith he conquers who would have been vanquished in living without faith. Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut dictum est, martyr dicitur quasi testis fidei Christianae, per quam nobis visibilia pro invisibilibus contemnenda proponuntur, ut dicitur Heb. XI. Ad martyrium ergo pertinet ut homo testificetur fidem, se opere ostendens cuncta praesentia contemnere, ut ad futura et ad invisibilia bona perveniat. Quandiu autem homini remanet vita corporalis, nondum opere se ostendit temporalia cuncta despicere, consueverunt enim homines et consanguineos et omnia bona possessa contemnere, et etiam dolores corporis pati, ut vitam conservent. Unde et Satan contra Iob induxit, pellem pro pelle, et cuncta quae habet homo, dabit pro anima sua, idest pro vita corporali. Et ideo ad perfectam rationem martyrii requiritur quod aliquis mortem sustineat propter Christum. I answer that, As stated above (A. 2), a martyr is so called as being a witness to the Christian faith, which teaches us to despise things visible for the sake of things invisible, as stated in Heb. 11. Accordingly it belongs to martyrdom that a man bear witness to the faith in showing by deed that he despises all things present, in order to obtain invisible goods to come. Now so long as a man retains the life of the body he does not show by deed that he despises all things relating to the body. For men are wont to despise both their kindred and all they possess, and even to suffer bodily pain, rather than lose life. Hence Satan testified against Job (Job 2:4): Skin for skin, and all that a man hath he will give for his soul i.e., for the life of his body. Therefore the perfect notion of martyrdom requires that a man suffer death for Christ’s sake. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod illae auctoritates, et si quae similes inveniuntur, loquuntur de martyrio per quandam similitudinem. Reply Obj. 1: The authorities quoted, and the like that one may meet with, speak of martyrdom by way of similitude. Ad secundum dicendum quod in muliere quae integritatem carnis perdit, vel ad perdendum eam damnatur, occasione fidei Christianae, non est apud homines manifestum utrum hoc mulier patiatur propter amorem fidei Christianae, vel magis pro contemptu castitatis. Et ideo apud homines non redditur per hoc testimonium sufficiens. Unde hoc non proprie habet rationem martyrii. Sed apud Deum, qui corda scrutatur, potest hoc ad praemium deputari, sicut Lucia dixit. Reply Obj. 2: When a woman forfeits the integrity of the flesh, or is condemned to forfeit it under pretext of the Christian faith, it is not evident to men whether she suffers this for love of the Christian faith, or rather through contempt of chastity. Wherefore in the sight of men her testimony is not held to be sufficient, and consequently this is not martyrdom properly speaking. In the sight of God, however, Who searcheth the heart, this may be deemed worthy of a reward, as Lucy said. Ad tertium dicendum quod, sicut supra dictum est, fortitudo principaliter consistit circa pericula mortis, circa alia autem consequenter. Et ideo nec martyrium proprie dicitur pro sola tolerantia carceris vel exilii vel rapinae divitiarum, nisi forte secundum quod ex his sequitur mors. Reply Obj. 3: As stated above (Q. 123, AA. 4, 5), fortitude regards danger of death chiefly, and other dangers consequently; wherefore a person is not called a martyr merely for suffering imprisonment, or exile, or forfeiture of his wealth, except insofar as these result in death. Ad quartum dicendum quod meritum martyrii non est post mortem, sed in ipsa voluntaria sustinentia mortis, prout scilicet aliquis voluntarie patitur inflictionem mortis. Contingit tamen quandoque quod aliquis post mortalia vulnera suscepta pro Christo, vel quascumque alias tribulationes continuatas usque ad mortem, quas a persecutoribus patitur pro fide Christi, diu aliquis vivat. In quo statu actus martyrii meritorius est, et etiam ipso eodem tempore quo huiusmodi afflictiones patitur. Reply Obj. 4: The merit of martyrdom is not after death, but in the voluntary endurance of death, namely in the fact that a person willingly suffers being put to death. It happens sometimes, however, that a man lives for some time after being mortally wounded for Christ’s sake, or after suffering for the faith of Christ any other kind of hardship inflicted by persecution and continued until death ensues. The act of martyrdom is meritorious while a man is in this state, and at the very time that he is suffering these hardships. Articulus 5 Article 5 Utrum sola fides sit causa martyrii Whether faith alone is the cause of martyrdom? Ad quintum sic proceditur. Videtur quod sola fides sit causa martyrii. Dicitur enim I Pet. IV, nemo vestrum patiatur quasi homicida aut fur, aut aliquid huiusmodi, si autem ut Christianus, non erubescat, glorificet autem Deum in isto nomine. Sed ex hoc dicitur aliquis Christianus quod tenet fidem Christi. Ergo sola fides Christi dat patientibus martyrii gloriam. Objection 1: It seems that faith alone is the cause of martyrdom. For it is written (1 Pet 4:15, 16): Let none of you suffer as a murderer, or a thief, or a railer, or a coveter of other men’s things. But if as a Christian, let him not be ashamed, but let him glorify God in this name. Now a man is said to be a Christian because he holds the faith of Christ. Therefore only faith in Christ gives the glory of martyrdom to those who suffer. Praeterea, martyr dicitur quasi testis. Testimonium autem non redditur nisi veritati. Non autem aliquis dicitur martyr ex testimonio cuiuslibet veritatis, sed solum ex testimonio veritatis divinae. Alioquin, si quis moreretur pro confessione veritatis geometriae, vel alterius scientiae speculativae, esset martyr, quod videtur ridiculum. Ergo sola fides est martyrii causa. Obj. 2: Further, a martyr is a kind of witness. But witness is borne to the truth alone. Now one is not called a martyr for bearing witness to any truth, but only for witnessing to the Divine truth, otherwise a man would be a martyr if he were to die for confessing a truth of geometry or some other speculative science, which seems ridiculous. Therefore faith alone is the cause of martyrdom. Praeterea, inter alia virtutum opera illa videntur esse potiora quae ordinantur ad bonum commune, quia bonum gentis melius est quam bonum unius hominis, secundum philosophum, in I Ethic. Si ergo aliquod aliud bonum esset causa martyrii, maxime videretur quod illi martyres essent qui pro defensione reipublicae moriuntur. Quod Ecclesiae observatio non habet, non enim militum qui in bello iusto moriuntur martyria celebrantur. Ergo sola fides videtur esse martyrii causa. Obj. 3: Further, those virtuous deeds would seem to be of most account which are directed to the common good, since the good of the nation is better than the good of the individual, according to the Philosopher (Ethic. i, 2). If, then, some other good were the cause of martyrdom, it would seem that before all those would be martyrs who die for the defense of their country. Yet this is not consistent with Church observance, for we do not celebrate the martyrdom of those who die in a just war. Therefore faith alone is the cause of martyrdom. Sed contra est quod dicitur Matth. V, beati qui persecutionem patiuntur propter iustitiam, quod pertinet ad martyrium, ut Glossa ibidem dicit. Ad iustitiam autem pertinet non solum fides, sed etiam aliae virtutes. Ergo etiam aliae virtutes possunt esse martyrii causa. On the contrary, It is written (Matt 5:10): Blessed are they that suffer persecution for justice’ sake, which pertains to martyrdom, according to a gloss, as well as Jerome’s commentary on this passage. Now not only faith but also the other virtues pertain to justice. Therefore other virtues can be the cause of martyrdom. Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut dictum est, martyres dicuntur quasi testes, quia scilicet corporalibus suis passionibus usque ad mortem testimonium perhibent veritati, non cuicumque, sed veritati quae secundum pietatem est, quae per Christum nobis innotuit; unde et martyres Christi dicuntur, quasi testes ipsius. Huiusmodi autem est veritas fidei. Et ideo cuiuslibet martyrii causa est fidei veritas. I answer that, As stated above (A. 4), martyrs are so called as being witnesses, because by suffering in body unto death they bear witness to the truth; not indeed to any truth, but to the truth which is in accordance with godliness, and was made known to us by Christ: wherefore Christ’s martyrs are His witnesses. Now this truth is the truth of faith. Wherefore the cause of all martyrdom is the truth of faith. Sed ad fidei veritatem non solum pertinet ipsa credulitas cordis, sed etiam exterior protestatio. Quae quidem fit non solum per verba quibus aliquis confitetur fidem, sed etiam per facta quibus aliquis fidem se habere ostendit, secundum illud Iac. II, ego ostendam tibi ex operibus fidem meam. Unde et de quibusdam dicitur Tit. I, confitentur se nosse Deum, factis autem negant. Et ideo omnium virtutum opera, secundum quod referuntur in Deum, sunt quaedam protestationes fidei, per quam nobis innotescit quod Deus huiusmodi opera a nobis requirit, et nos pro eis remunerat. Et secundum hoc possunt esse martyrii causa. Unde et beati Ioannis Baptistae martyrium in Ecclesia celebratur, qui non pro neganda fide, sed pro reprehensione adulterii mortem sustinuit. But the truth of faith includes not only inward belief, but also outward profession, which is expressed not only by words, whereby one confesses the faith, but also by deeds, whereby a person shows that he has faith, according to James 2:18, I will show thee, by works, my faith. Hence it is written of certain people (Titus 1:16): They profess that they know God but in their works they deny Him. Thus all virtuous deeds, inasmuch as they are referred to God, are professions of the faith whereby we come to know that God requires these works of us, and rewards us for them: and in this way they can be the cause of martyrdom. For this reason the Church celebrates the martyrdom of Blessed John the Baptist, who suffered death, not for refusing to deny the faith, but for reproving adultery. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod Christianus dicitur qui Christi est. Dicitur autem aliquis esse Christi non solum ex eo quod habet fidem Christi, sed etiam ex eo quod spiritu Christi ad opera virtuosa procedit, secundum illud Rom. VIII, si quis spiritum Christi non habet, hic non est eius; et etiam ex hoc quod, ad imitationem Christi, peccatis moritur, secundum illud Galat. V, qui Christi sunt, carnem suam crucifixerunt, cum vitiis et concupiscentiis. Et ideo ut Christianus patitur non solum qui patitur pro fidei confessione quae fit per verba, sed etiam quicumque patitur pro quocumque bono opere faciendo, vel pro quocumque peccato vitando, propter Christum, quia totum hoc pertinet ad fidei protestationem. Reply Obj. 1: A Christian is one who is Christ’s. Now a person is said to be Christ’s, not only through having faith in Christ, but also because he is actuated to virtuous deeds by the Spirit of Christ, according to Rom. 8:9, If any man have not the Spirit of Christ, he is none of His; and again because in imitation of Christ he is dead to sins, according to Gal. 5:24, They that are Christ’s have crucified their flesh with the vices and concupiscences. Hence to suffer as a Christian is not only to suffer in confession of the faith, which is done by words, but also to suffer for doing any good work, or for avoiding any sin, for Christ’s sake, because this all comes under the head of witnessing to the faith. Ad secundum dicendum quod veritas aliarum scientiarum non pertinet ad cultum divinitatis. Et ideo non dicitur esse secundum pietatem. Unde nec eius confessio potest esse directe martyrii causa. Sed quia omne mendacium peccatum est, ut supra habitum est, vitatio mendacii, contra quamcumque veritatem sit, inquantum mendacium est peccatum divinae legi contrarium, potest esse martyrii causa. Reply Obj. 2: The truth of other sciences has no connection with the worship of the Godhead: hence it is not called truth according to godliness, and consequently the confession thereof cannot be said to be the direct cause of martyrdom. Yet, since every lie is a sin, as stated above (Q. 110, AA. 3, 4), avoidance of a lie, to whatever truth it may be contrary, may be the cause of martyrdom inasmuch as a lie is a sin against the Divine Law. Ad tertium dicendum quod bonum reipublicae est praecipuum inter bona humana. Sed bonum divinum, quod est propria causa martyrii, est potius quam humanum. Quia tamen bonum humanum potest effici divinum, ut si referatur in Deum; potest esse quodcumque bonum humanum martyrii causa secundum quod in Deum refertur. Reply Obj. 3: The good of one’s country is paramount among human goods: yet the Divine good, which is the proper cause of martyrdom, is of more account than human good. Nevertheless, since human good may become Divine, for instance when it is referred to God, it follows that any human good insofar as it is referred to God, may be the cause of martyrdom. Quaestio 125 Question 125 De timore Fear Deinde considerandum est de vitiis oppositis fortitudini. Et primo, de timore; secundo, de intimiditate; tertio, de audacia. We must now consider the vices opposed to fortitude: (1) Fear; (2) Fearlessness; (3) Daring. Circa primum quaeruntur quatuor. Under the first head there are four points of inquiry: Primo, utrum timor sit peccatum. (1) Whether fear is a sin? Secundo, utrum opponatur fortitudini. (2) Whether it is opposed to fortitude? Tertio, utrum sit peccatum mortale. (3) Whether it is a mortal sin? Quarto, utrum excuset vel diminuat peccatum. (4) Whether it excuses from sin, or diminishes it? Articulus 1 Article 1