Ad secundum dicendum quod Ecclesia, ieiunium instituens, intendit ad id quod communius accidit. Esus autem carnium est magis delectabilis communiter quam esus piscium, quamvis in quibusdam aliter se habeat. Et ideo Ecclesia magis ieiunantibus prohibuit esum carnium quam esum piscium. Reply Obj. 2: In the institution of fasting, the Church takes account of the more common occurrences. Now, generally speaking, eating flesh meat affords more pleasure than eating fish, although this is not always the case. Hence the Church forbade those who fast to eat flesh meat, rather than to eat fish. Ad tertium dicendum quod ova et lacticinia ieiunantibus interdicuntur inquantum sunt animalibus exorta carnes habentibus. Unde principalius interdicuntur quam ova vel lacticinia. Similiter etiam inter alia ieiunia, solemnius est quadragesimale ieiunium, tum quia observatur ad imitationem Christi; tum etiam quia per ipsum disponimur ad redemptionis nostrae mysteria devote celebranda. Et ideo in quolibet ieiunio interdicitur esus carnium, in ieiunio autem quadragesimali interdicuntur universaliter etiam ova et lacticinia. Circa quorum abstinentiam in aliis ieiuniis diversae consuetudines existunt apud diversos, quas quisque observare debet, secundum morem eorum inter quos conversatur. Unde Hieronymus dicit, de ieiuniis loquens, unaquaeque provincia abundet in suo sensu, et praecepta maiorum leges apostolicas arbitretur. Reply Obj. 3: Eggs and milk foods are forbidden to those who fast, for as much as they originate from animals that provide us with flesh: wherefore the prohibition of flesh meat takes precedence of the prohibition of eggs and milk foods. Again the Lenten fast is the most solemn of all, both because it is kept in imitation of Christ, and because it disposes us to celebrate devoutly the mysteries of our redemption. For this reason the eating of flesh meat is forbidden in every fast, while the Lenten fast lays a general prohibition even on eggs and milk foods. As to the use of the latter things in other fasts the custom varies among different people, and each person is bound to conform to that custom which is in vogue with those among whom he is dwelling. Hence Jerome says: Let each province keep to its own practice, and look upon the commands of the elders as though they were the laws of the apostles. Quaestio 148 Question 148 De gula Gluttony Deinde considerandum est de gula. Et circa hoc quaeruntur sex. We must now consider gluttony. Under this head there are six points of inquiry: Primo, utrum gula sit peccatum. (1) Whether gluttony is a sin? Secundo, utrum sit peccatum mortale. (2) Whether it is a mortal sin? Tertio, utrum sit maximum peccatorum. (3) Whether it is the greatest of sins? Quarto, de speciebus eius. (4) Its species; Quinto, utrum sit vitium capitale. (5) Whether it is a capital sin? Sexto, de filiabus eius. (6) Its daughters. Articulus 1 Article 1 Utrum gula sit peccatum Whether gluttony is a sin? Ad primum sic proceditur. Videtur quod gula non sit peccatum. Dicit enim dominus, Matth. XV, quod intrat in os, non coinquinat hominem. Sed gula est circa cibos, qui intrant in hominem. Cum ergo omne peccatum coinquinet hominem, videtur quod gula non sit peccatum. Objection 1: It would seem that gluttony is not a sin. For our Lord said (Matt 15:11): Not that which goeth into the mouth defileth a man. Now gluttony regards food which goes into a man. Therefore, since every sin defiles a man, it seems that gluttony is not a sin. Praeterea, nullus peccat in eo quod vitare non potest. Sed gula consistit in immoderantia cibi, quam non potest homo vitare, dicit enim Gregorius, XXX Moral., quia per esum voluptas necessitati miscetur, quid necessitas petat, et quid voluptas suppetat, ignoratur; et Augustinus dicit, X Confess., quis est, domine, qui aliquantulum extra metas necessitatis cibum non sumit? Ergo gula non est peccatum. Obj. 2: Further, No man sins in what he cannot avoid. Now gluttony is immoderation in food; and man cannot avoid this, for Gregory says (Moral. xxx, 18): Since in eating pleasure and necessity go together, we fail to discern between the call of necessity and the seduction of pleasure, and Augustine says (Confess. x, 31): Who is it, Lord, that does not eat a little more than necessary? Therefore gluttony is not a sin. Praeterea, in quolibet genere peccati primus motus est peccatum. Sed primus motus sumendi cibum non est peccatum, alioquin fames et sitis essent peccata. Ergo gula non est peccatum. Obj. 3: Further, in every kind of sin the first movement is a sin. But the first movement in taking food is not a sin, else hunger and thirst would be sinful. Therefore gluttony is not a sin. Sed contra est quod Gregorius dicit, XXX Moral., quod ad conflictum spiritualis agonis non assurgitur, si non prius intra nosmetipsos hostis positus, gulae videlicet appetitus, edomatur. Sed interior hostis hominis est peccatum. Ergo gula est peccatum. On the contrary, Gregory says (Moral. xxx, 18) that unless we first tame the enemy dwelling within us, namely our gluttonous appetite, we have not even stood up to engage in the spiritual combat. But man’s inward enemy is sin. Therefore gluttony is a sin. Respondeo dicendum quod gula non nominat quemlibet appetitum edendi et bibendi, sed inordinatum. Dicitur autem appetitus inordinatus ex eo quod recedit ab ordine rationis, in quo bonum virtutis moralis consistit. Ex hoc autem dicitur aliquid esse peccatum quod virtuti contrariatur. Unde manifestum est quod gula est peccatum. I answer that, Gluttony denotes, not any desire of eating and drinking, but an inordinate desire. Now desire is said to be inordinate through leaving the order of reason, wherein the good of moral virtue consists: and a thing is said to be a sin through being contrary to virtue. Wherefore it is evident that gluttony is a sin. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod id quod intrat in hominem per modum cibi, secundum suam substantiam et naturam, non coinquinat hominem spiritualiter, sed Iudaei, contra quos dominus loquitur, et Manichaei opinabantur quod aliqui cibi immundos facerent, non propter figuram, sed secundum propriam naturam. Inordinata tamen ciborum concupiscentia hominem spiritualiter coinquinat. Reply Obj. 1: That which goes into man by way of food, by reason of its substance and nature, does not defile a man spiritually. But the Jews, against whom our Lord is speaking, and the Manichees deemed certain foods to make a man unclean, not on account of their signification, but by reason of their nature. It is the inordinate desire of food that defiles a man spiritually. Ad secundum dicendum quod, sicut dictum est, vitium gulae non consistit in substantia cibi, sed in concupiscentia non regulata ratione. Et ideo si aliquis excedat in quantitate cibi non propter cibi concupiscentiam, sed aestimans id sibi necessarium esse, non pertinet hoc ad gulam, sed ad aliquam imperitiam. Sed hoc solum pertinet ad gulam, quod aliquis, propter concupiscentiam cibi delectabilis, scienter excedat mensuram in edendo. Reply Obj. 2: As stated above, the vice of gluttony does not regard the substance of food, but in the desire thereof not being regulated by reason. Wherefore if a man exceed in quantity of food, not from desire of food, but through deeming it necessary to him, this pertains, not to gluttony, but to some kind of inexperience. It is a case of gluttony only when a man knowingly exceeds the measure in eating, from a desire for the pleasures of the palate. Ad tertium dicendum quod duplex est appetitus. Unus quidem naturalis, qui pertinet ad vires animae vegetabilis, in quibus non potest esse virtus et vitium, eo quod non possunt subiici rationi. Unde et vis appetitiva dividitur contra retentivam, digestivam, expulsivam. Et ad talem appetitum pertinet esuries et sitis. Est autem et alius appetitus sensitivus, in cuius concupiscentia vitium gulae consistit. Unde primus motus gulae importat inordinationem in appetitu sensitivo, quae non est sine peccato. Reply Obj. 3: The appetite is twofold. There is the natural appetite, which belongs to the powers of the vegetal soul. In these powers virtue and vice are impossible, since they cannot be subject to reason; wherefore the appetitive power is differentiated from the powers of secretion, digestion, and excretion, and to it hunger and thirst are to be referred. Besides this there is another, the sensitive appetite, and it is in the concupiscence of this appetite that the vice of gluttony consists. Hence the first movement of gluttony denotes inordinateness in the sensitive appetite, and this is not without sin. Articulus 2 Article 2 Utrum gula sit peccatum mortale Whether gluttony is a mortal sin? Ad secundum sic proceditur. Videtur quod gula non sit peccatum mortale. Omne enim peccatum mortale contrariatur alicui praecepto Decalogi. Quod de gula non videtur. Ergo gula non est peccatum mortale. Objection 1: It would seem that gluttony is not a mortal sin. For every mortal sin is contrary to a precept of the Decalogue: and this, apparently, does not apply to gluttony. Therefore gluttony is not a mortal sin. Praeterea, omne peccatum mortale contrariatur caritati, ut ex supra dictis patet. Sed gula non opponitur caritati, neque quantum ad dilectionem Dei, neque quantum ad dilectionem proximi. Ergo gula nunquam est peccatum mortale. Obj. 2: Further, every mortal sin is contrary to charity, as stated above (Q. 132, A. 3). But gluttony is not opposed to charity, neither as regards the love of God, nor as regards the love of one’s neighbor. Therefore gluttony is never a mortal sin. Praeterea, Augustinus dicit, in sermone de Purgatorio, quoties aliquis in cibo aut potu plus accipit quam necesse est, ad minuta peccata noverit pertinere. Sed hoc pertinet ad gulam. Ergo gula computatur inter minuta, idest inter venialia peccata. Obj. 3: Further, Augustine says in a sermon on Purgatory: Whenever a man takes more meat and drink than is necessary, he should know that this is one of the lesser sins. But this pertains to gluttony. Therefore gluttony is accounted among the lesser, that is to say venial, sins. Sed contra est quod Gregorius dicit, in XXX Moral., dominante gulae vitio, omne quod homines fortiter egerunt, perdunt, et dum venter non restringitur, simul cunctae virtutes obruuntur. Sed virtus non tollitur nisi per peccatum mortale. Ergo gula est peccatum mortale. On the contrary, Gregory says (Moral. xxx, 18): As long as the vice of gluttony has a hold on a man, all that he has done valiantly is forfeited by him: and as long as the belly is unrestrained, all virtue comes to naught. But virtue is not done away save by mortal sin. Therefore gluttony is a mortal sin. Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut dictum est, vitium gulae proprie consistit in concupiscentia inordinata. Ordo autem rationis concupiscentiam ordinantis dupliciter tolli potest. Uno modo, quantum ad ea quae sunt ad finem, prout scilicet non sunt ita commensurata ut sint proportionata fini. Alio modo, quantum ad ipsum finem, prout scilicet concupiscentia hominem avertit a fine debito. Si ergo inordinatio concupiscentiae accipiatur in gula secundum aversionem a fine ultimo, sic gula erit peccatum mortale. Quod quidem contingit quando delectationi gulae inhaeret homo tanquam fini propter quem Deum contemnit, paratus scilicet contra praecepta Dei agere ut delectationes huiusmodi assequatur. Si vero in vitio gulae intelligatur inordinatio concupiscentiae tantum secundum ea quae sunt ad finem, utpote quia nimis concupiscit delectationes ciborum, non tamen ita quod propter hoc aliquid faceret contra legem Dei, est peccatum veniale. I answer that, As stated above (A. 1), the vice of gluttony properly consists in inordinate concupiscence. Now the order of reason in regulating the concupiscence may be considered from two points of view. First, with regard to things directed to the end, inasmuch as they may be incommensurate and consequently improportionate to the end; second, with regard to the end itself, inasmuch as concupiscence turns man away from his due end. Accordingly, if the inordinate concupiscence in gluttony be found to turn man away from the last end, gluttony will be a mortal sin. This is the case when he adheres to the pleasure of gluttony as his end, for the sake of which he contemns God, being ready to disobey God’s commandments, in order to obtain those pleasures. On the other hand, if the inordinate concupiscence in the vice of gluttony be found to affect only such things as are directed to the end, for instance when a man has too great a desire for the pleasures of the palate, yet would not for their sake do anything contrary to God’s law, it is a venial sin. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod vitium gulae habet quod sit peccatum mortale inquantum avertit a fine ultimo. Et secundum hoc, per quandam reductionem, opponitur praecepto de sanctificatione sabbati, in quo praecipitur quies in fine ultimo. Non enim omnia peccata mortalia directe contrariantur praeceptis Decalogi, sed solum illa quae iniustitiam continent, quia praecepta Decalogi specialiter pertinent ad iustitiam et partes eius, ut supra habitum est. Reply Obj. 1: The vice of gluttony becomes a mortal sin by turning man away from his last end: and accordingly, by a kind of reduction, it is opposed to the precept of hallowing the sabbath, which commands us to rest in our last end. For mortal sins are not all directly opposed to the precepts of the Decalogue, but only those which contain injustice: because the precepts of the Decalogue pertain specially to justice and its parts, as stated above (Q. 122, A. 1). Ad secundum dicendum quod, inquantum avertit a fine ultimo, contrariatur gula dilectioni Dei, qui est super omnia sicut finis ultimus diligendus. Et secundum hoc solum gula est peccatum mortale. Reply Obj. 2: Insofar as it turns man away from his last end, gluttony is opposed to the love of God, who is to be loved, as our last end, above all things: and only in this respect is gluttony a mortal sin. Ad tertium dicendum quod illud verbum Augustini intelligitur de gula prout importat inordinationem concupiscentiae solum circa ea quae sunt ad finem. Reply Obj. 3: This saying of Augustine refers to gluttony as denoting inordinate concupiscence merely in regard of things directed to the end. Ad quartum dicendum quod gula dicitur virtutes auferre non tam propter se, quam etiam propter vitia quae ex ea oriuntur. Dicit enim Gregorius, in pastorali, dum venter ingluvie tenditur, virtutes animae per luxuriam destruuntur. Reply Obj. 4: Gluttony is said to bring virtue to naught, not so much on its own account, as on account of the vices which arise from it. For Gregory says (Pastor. iii, 19): When the belly is distended by gluttony, the virtues of the soul are destroyed by lust. Articulus 3 Article 3 Utrum gula sit maximum peccatorum Whether gluttony is the greatest of sins? Ad tertium sic proceditur. Videtur quod gula sit maximum peccatorum. Magnitudo enim peccati ex magnitudine poenae consideratur. Sed peccatum gulae est gravissime punitum, dicit enim Chrysostomus, Adam incontinentia ventris expulit a Paradiso; diluvium quod fuit tempore Noe, ipsa fecit; secundum illud Ezech. XVI, haec fuit iniquitas Sodomae, sororis tuae, saturitas panis, et cetera. Ergo peccatum gulae est maximum. Objection 1: It would seem that gluttony is the greatest of sins. For the grievousness of a sin is measured by the grievousness of the punishment. Now the sin of gluttony is most grievously punished, for Chrysostom says: Gluttony turned Adam out of Paradise, gluttony it was that drew down the deluge at the time of Noah. According to Ezech. 16:49, This was the iniquity of Sodom, thy sister . . . fullness of bread, etc. Therefore the sin of gluttony is the greatest of all. Praeterea, causa in quolibet genere est potior. Sed gula videtur esse causa aliorum peccatorum, quia super illud Psalmi, qui percussit Aegyptum cum primogenitis eorum, dicit Glossa, luxuria, concupiscentia, superbia sunt ea quae venter generat. Ergo gula est gravissimum peccatorum. Obj. 2: Further, in every genus the cause is the most powerful. Now gluttony is apparently the cause of other sins, for a gloss on Ps. 135:10, Who smote Egypt with their first-born, says: Lust, concupiscence, pride are the first-born of gluttony. Therefore gluttony is the greatest of sins.