Praeterea, secundum Dionysium, IV cap. de Div. Nom., malum animae est sine ratione esse. Sed ira semper est sine ratione. Dicit enim philosophus, in VII Ethic., quod ira non perfecte audit rationem. Et Gregorius dicit, V Moral., quod cum tranquillitatem mentis ira diverberat, dilaniatam quodammodo scissamque perturbat. Et Cassianus dicit, in libro de institutis coenobiorum, qualibet ex causa iracundiae motus effervens, excaecat oculum cordis. Ergo irasci semper est malum. Obj. 2: Further, according to Dionysius (Div. Nom. iv), The soul’s evil is to be without reason. Now anger is always without reason: for the Philosopher says (Ethic. vii, 6) that anger does not listen perfectly to reason; and Gregory says (Moral. v, 45) that when anger sunders the tranquil surface of the soul, it mangles and rends it by its riot; and Cassian says (De Inst. Coenob. viii, 6): From whatever cause it arises, the angry passion boils over and blinds the eye of the mind. Therefore it is always evil to be angry. Praeterea, ira est appetitus vindictae, ut dicit Glossa super Levit. XIX, non oderis fratrem tuum in corde tuo. Sed appetere ultionem non videtur esse licitum, sed hoc Deo est reservandum, secundum illud Deut. XXXII, mea est ultio. Ergo videtur quod irasci semper sit malum. Obj. 3: Further, anger is desire for vengeance according to a gloss on Lev. 19:17, Thou shalt not hate thy brother in thy heart. Now it would seem unlawful to desire vengeance, since this should be left to God, according to Deut. 32:35, Revenge is Mine. Therefore it would seem that to be angry is always an evil. Praeterea, omne illud quod abducit nos a divina similitudine, est malum. Sed irasci semper abducit nos a divina similitudine, quia Deus cum tranquillitate iudicat, ut habetur Sap. XII. Ergo irasci semper est malum. Obj. 4: Further, all that makes us depart from likeness to God is evil. Now anger always makes us depart from likeness to God, since God judges with tranquillity according to Wis. 12:18. Therefore to be angry is always an evil. Sed contra est quod Chrysostomus dicit, super Matth., qui sine causa irascitur, reus erit, qui vero cum causa, non erit reus. Nam si ira non fuerit, nec doctrina proficit, nec iudicia stant, nec crimina compescuntur. Ergo irasci non semper est malum. On the contrary, Chrysostom says: He that is angry without cause, shall be in danger; but he that is angry with cause, shall not be in danger: for without anger, teaching will be useless, judgments unstable, crimes unchecked. Therefore to be angry is not always an evil. Respondeo dicendum quod ira, proprie loquendo, est passio quaedam appetitus sensitivi, a qua vis irascibilis denominatur, ut supra habitum est, cum de passionibus ageretur. Est autem hoc considerandum circa passiones animae, quod dupliciter in eis potest malum inveniri. Uno modo, ex ipsa specie passionis. Quae quidem consideratur secundum obiectum passionis. Sicut invidia secundum suam speciem importat quoddam malum, est enim tristitia de bono aliorum, quod secundum se rationi repugnat. Et ideo invidia, mox nominata, sonat aliquid mali, ut philosophus dicit, in II Ethic. Hoc autem non convenit irae, quae est appetitus vindictae, potest enim vindicta et bene et male appeti. Alio modo invenitur malum in aliqua passione secundum quantitatem ipsius, idest secundum superabundantiam vel defectum ipsius. Et sic potest malum in ira inveniri, quando scilicet aliquis irascitur plus vel minus, praeter rationem rectam. Si autem aliquis irascatur secundum rationem rectam, tunc irasci est laudabile. I answer that, Properly speaking anger is a passion of the sensitive appetite, and gives its name to the irascible power, as stated above (I-II, Q. 46, A. 1) when we were treating of the passions. Now with regard to the passions of the soul, it is to be observed that evil may be found in them in two ways. First by reason of the passion’s very species, which is derived from the passion’s object. Thus envy, in respect of its species, denotes an evil, since it is displeasure at another’s good, and such displeasure is in itself contrary to reason: wherefore, as the Philosopher remarks (Ethic. ii, 6), the very mention of envy denotes something evil. Now this does not apply to anger, which is the desire for revenge, since revenge may be desired both well and ill. Second, evil is found in a passion in respect of the passion’s quantity, that is in respect of its excess or deficiency; and thus evil may be found in anger, when, to wit, one is angry, more or less than right reason demands. But if one is angry in accordance with right reason, one’s anger is deserving of praise. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod Stoici iram et omnes alias passiones nominabant affectus quosdam praeter ordinem rationis existentes, et secundum hoc, ponebant iram et omnes alias passiones esse malas, ut supra dictum est, cum de passionibus ageretur. Et secundum hoc accipit iram Hieronymus, loquitur enim de ira qua quis irascitur contra proximum quasi malum eius intendens. Sed secundum Peripateticos, quorum sententiam magis approbat Augustinus, in IX de Civ. Dei, ira et aliae passiones animae dicuntur motus appetitus sensitivi, sive sint moderatae secundum rationem sive non. Et secundum hoc, ira non semper est mala. Reply Obj. 1: The Stoics designated anger and all the other passions as emotions opposed to the order of reason; and accordingly they deemed anger and all other passions to be evil, as stated above (I-II, Q. 24, A. 2) when we were treating of the passions. It is in this sense that Jerome considers anger; for he speaks of the anger whereby one is angry with one’s neighbor, with the intent of doing him a wrong. But, according to the Peripatetics, to whose opinion Augustine inclines (De Civ. Dei ix, 4), anger and the other passions of the soul are movements of the sensitive appetite, whether they be moderated or not, according to reason: and in this sense anger is not always evil. Ad secundum dicendum quod ira dupliciter se potest habere ad rationem. Uno quidem modo, antecedenter. Et sic trahit rationem a sua rectitudine, unde habet rationem mali. Alio modo, consequenter prout scilicet appetitus sensitivus movetur contra vitia secundum ordinem rationis. Et haec ira est bona, quae dicitur ira per zelum. Unde Gregorius dicit, in V Moral., curandum summopere est ne ira, quae ut instrumentum virtutis assumitur, menti dominetur, ne quasi domina praeeat, sed velut ancilla ad obsequium parata, a rationis tergo nunquam recedat. Haec autem ira, etsi in ipsa executione actus iudicium rationis aliqualiter impediat, non tamen rectitudinem rationis tollit. Unde Gregorius, ibidem, dicit quod ira per zelum turbat rationis oculum, sed ira per vitium excaecat. Non autem est contra rationem virtutis ut intermittatur deliberatio rationis in executione eius quod est a ratione deliberatum. Quia etiam ars impediretur in suo actu si, dum debet agere, deliberaret de agendis. Reply Obj. 2: Anger may stand in a twofold relation to reason. First, antecedently; in this way it withdraws reason from its rectitude, and has therefore the character of evil. Second, consequently, inasmuch as the movement of the sensitive appetite is directed against vice and in accordance with reason, this anger is good, and is called zealous anger. Wherefore Gregory says (Moral. v, 45): We must beware lest, when we use anger as an instrument of virtue, it overrule the mind, and go before it as its mistress, instead of following in reason’s train, ever ready, as its handmaid, to obey. This latter anger, although it hinder somewhat the judgment of reason in the execution of the act, does not destroy the rectitude of reason. Hence Gregory says (Moral. v, 45) that zealous anger troubles the eye of reason, whereas sinful anger blinds it. Nor is it incompatible with virtue that the deliberation of reason be interrupted in the execution of what reason has deliberated: since art also would be hindered in its act, if it were to deliberate about what has to be done, while having to act. Ad tertium dicendum quod appetere vindictam propter malum eius qui puniendus est, illicitum est. Sed appetere vindictam propter vitiorum correctionem et bonum iustitiae conservandum, laudabile est. Et in hoc potest tendere appetitus sensitivus inquantum movetur a ratione. Et dum vindicta secundum ordinem iudicii fit, a Deo fit, cuius minister est potestas puniens, ut dicitur Rom. XIII. Reply Obj. 3: It is unlawful to desire vengeance considered as evil to the man who is to be punished, but it is praiseworthy to desire vengeance as a corrective of vice and for the good of justice; and to this the sensitive appetite can tend, insofar as it is moved thereto by the reason: and when revenge is taken in accordance with the order of judgment, it is God’s work, since he who has power to punish is God’s minister, as stated in Rom. 13:4. Ad quartum dicendum quod Deo assimilari possumus et debemus in appetitu boni, sed in modo appetendi ei omnino assimilari non possumus; quia in Deo non est appetitus sensitivus, sicut in nobis, cuius motus debet rationi deservire. Unde Gregorius dicit, in V Moral., quod tunc robustius ratio contra vitia erigitur, cum ira subdita rationi famulatur. Reply Obj. 4: We can and ought to be like to God in the desire for good; but we cannot be altogether likened to Him in the mode of our desire, since in God there is no sensitive appetite, as in us, the movement of which has to obey reason. Wherefore Gregory says (Moral. v, 45) that anger is more firmly erect in withstanding vice, when it bows to the command of reason. Articulus 2 Article 2 Utrum ira sit peccatum Whether anger is a sin? Ad secundum sic proceditur. Videtur quod ira non sit peccatum. Peccando enim demeremur. Sed passionibus non demeremur, sicut neque vituperamur, ut dicitur in II Ethic. Ergo nulla passio est peccatum. Ira autem est passio, ut supra habitum est, cum de passionibus ageretur. Ergo ira non est peccatum. Objection 1: It would seem that anger is not a sin. For we demerit by sinning. But we do not demerit by the passions, even as neither do we incur blame thereby, as stated in Ethic. ii, 5. Consequently no passion is a sin. Now anger is a passion as stated above (I-II, Q. 46, A. 1) in the treatise on the passions. Therefore anger is not a sin. Praeterea, in omni peccato est conversio ad aliquod commutabile bonum. Sed per iram non convertitur aliquis ad aliquod bonum commutabile, sed in malum alicuius. Ergo ira non est peccatum. Obj. 2: Further, in every sin there is conversion to some mutable good. But in anger there is conversion not to a mutable good, but to a person’s evil. Therefore anger is not a sin. Praeterea, nullus peccat in eo quod vitare non potest, ut Augustinus dicit. Sed iram homo vitare non potest, quia super illud Psalmi, irascimini et nolite peccare, dicit Glossa quod motus irae non est in potestate nostra. Philosophus etiam dicit, in VII Ethic., quod iratus cum tristitia operatur, tristitia autem est contraria voluntati. Ergo ira non est peccatum. Obj. 3: Further, No man sins in what he cannot avoid, as Augustine asserts. But man cannot avoid anger, for a gloss on Ps. 4:5, Be ye angry and sin not, says: The movement of anger is not in our power. Again, the Philosopher asserts (Ethic. vii, 6) that the angry man acts with displeasure. Now displeasure is contrary to the will. Therefore anger is not a sin. Praeterea, peccatum est contra naturam, ut Damascenus dicit, in II libro. Sed irasci non est contra naturam hominis, cum sit actus naturalis potentiae quae est irascibilis. Unde et Hieronymus dicit, in quadam epistola, quod irasci est hominis. Ergo ira non est peccatum. Obj. 4: Further, sin is contrary to nature, according to Damascene. But it is not contrary to man’s nature to be angry, and it is the natural act of a power, namely the irascible; wherefore Jerome says in a letter that to be angry is the property of man. Therefore it is not a sin to be angry. Sed contra est quod apostolus dicit, ad Ephes. IV, omnis indignatio et ira tollatur a vobis. On the contrary, The Apostle says (Eph 4:31): Let all indignation and anger . . . be put away from you. Respondeo dicendum quod ira, sicut dictum est, proprie nominat quandam passionem. Passio autem appetitus sensitivi intantum est bona inquantum ratione regulatur, si autem ordinem rationis excludat, est mala. Ordo autem rationis in ira potest attendi quantum ad duo. Primo quidem, quantum ad appetibile in quod tendit, quod est vindicta. Unde si aliquis appetat quod secundum ordinem rationis fiat vindicta, est laudabilis irae appetitus, et vocatur ira per zelum. Si autem aliquis appetat quod fiat vindicta qualitercumque contra ordinem rationis; puta si appetat puniri eum qui non meruit, vel ultra quam meruit, vel etiam non secundum legitimum ordinem, vel non propter debitum finem, qui est conservatio iustitiae et correctio culpae, erit appetitus irae vitiosus. Et nominatur ira per vitium. I answer that, Anger, as stated above (A. 1), is properly the name of a passion. A passion of the sensitive appetite is good insofar as it is regulated by reason, whereas it is evil if it set the order of reason aside. Now the order of reason, in regard to anger, may be considered in relation to two things. First, in relation to the appetible object to which anger tends, and that is revenge. Wherefore if one desire revenge to be taken in accordance with the order of reason, the desire of anger is praiseworthy, and is called zealous anger. On the other hand, if one desire the taking of vengeance in any way whatever contrary to the order of reason, for instance if he desire the punishment of one who has not deserved it, or beyond his deserts, or again contrary to the order prescribed by law, or not for the due end, namely the maintaining of justice and the correction of defaults, then the desire of anger will be sinful, and this is called sinful anger. Alio modo attenditur ordo rationis circa iram quantum ad modum irascendi, ut scilicet motus irae non immoderate fervescat, nec interius nec exterius. Quod quidem si praetermittatur, non erit ira absque peccato, etiam si aliquis appetat iustam vindictam. Second, the order of reason in regard to anger may be considered in relation to the mode of being angry, namely that the movement of anger should not be immoderately fierce, neither internally nor externally; and if this condition be disregarded, anger will not lack sin, even though just vengeance be desired. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod, quia passio potest esse regulata ratione vel non regulata, ideo secundum passionem absolute consideratam non importatur ratio meriti vel demeriti, seu laudis vel vituperii. Secundum tamen quod est regulata ratione, potest habere rationem meritorii et laudabilis, et e contrario, secundum quod non est regulata ratione, potest habere rationem demeriti et vituperabilis. Unde et philosophus ibidem dicit quod laudatur vel vituperatur qui aliqualiter irascitur. Reply Obj. 1: Since passion may be either regulated or not regulated by reason, it follows that a passion considered absolutely does not include the notion of merit or demerit, of praise or blame. But as regulated by reason, it may be something meritorious and deserving of praise; while on the other hand, as not regulated by reason, it may be demeritorious and blameworthy. Wherefore the Philosopher says (Ethic. ii, 5) that it is he who is angry in a certain way, that is praised or blamed. Ad secundum dicendum quod iratus non appetit malum alterius propter se, sed propter vindictam, in quam convertitur appetitus eius sicut in quoddam commutabile bonum. Reply Obj. 2: The angry man desires the evil of another, not for its own sake but for the sake of revenge, towards which his appetite turns as to a mutable good. Ad tertium dicendum quod homo est dominus suorum actuum per arbitrium rationis. Et ideo motus qui praeveniunt iudicium rationis, non sunt in potestate hominis in generali, ut scilicet nullus eorum insurgat, quamvis ratio possit quemlibet singulariter impedire ne insurgat. Et secundum hoc dicitur quod motus irae non est in potestate hominis, ita scilicet quod nullus insurgat. Quia tamen aliqualiter est in hominis potestate, non totaliter perdit rationem peccati, si sit inordinatus. Quod autem philosophus dicit, iratum cum tristitia operari, non est sic intelligendum quasi tristetur de eo quod irascitur, sed quia tristatur de iniuria quam aestimat sibi illatam, et ex hac tristitia movetur ad appetendum vindictam. Reply Obj. 3: Man is master of his actions through the judgment of his reason, wherefore as to the movements that forestall that judgment, it is not in man’s power to prevent them as a whole, i.e., so that none of them arise, although his reason is able to check each one, if it arise. Accordingly it is stated that the movement of anger is not in man’s power, to the extent namely that no such movement arise. Yet since this movement is somewhat in his power, it is not entirely sinless if it be inordinate. The statement of the Philosopher that the angry man acts with displeasure, means that he is displeased, not with his being angry, but with the injury which he deems done to himself: and through this displeasure he is moved to seek vengeance. Ad quartum dicendum quod irascibilis in homine naturaliter subiicitur rationi. Et ideo actus eius intantum est homini naturalis inquantum est secundum rationem, inquantum vero est praeter ordinem rationis, est contra hominis naturam. Reply Obj. 4: The irascible power in man is naturally subject to his reason, wherefore its act is natural to man, insofar as it is in accord with reason, and insofar as it is against reason, it is contrary to man’s nature. Articulus 3 Article 3 Utrum omnis ira sit peccatum mortale Whether all anger is a mortal sin? Ad tertium sic proceditur. Videtur quod omnis ira sit peccatum mortale. Dicitur enim Iob V, virum stultum interficit iracundia, et loquitur de interfectione spirituali, a qua peccatum mortale denominatur. Ergo ira est peccatum mortale. Objection 1: It would seem that all anger is a mortal sin. For it is written (Job 5:2): Anger killeth the foolish man, and he speaks of the spiritual killing, whence mortal sin takes its name. Therefore all anger is a mortal sin. Praeterea, nihil meretur damnationem aeternam nisi peccatum mortale. Sed ira meretur damnationem aeternam, dicit enim dominus, Matth. V, omnis qui irascitur fratri suo, reus erit iudicio; ubi dicit Glossa quod per illa tria, quae ibi tanguntur, scilicet, iudicium, Concilium et Gehennam, diversae mansiones in aeterna damnatione, pro modo peccati, singulariter exprimuntur. Ergo ira est peccatum mortale. Obj. 2: Further, nothing save mortal sin is deserving of eternal condemnation. Now anger deserves eternal condemnation; for our Lord said (Matt 5:22): Whosoever is angry with his brother shall be in danger of the judgment: and a gloss on this passage says that the three things mentioned there, namely judgment, council, and hell-fire, signify in a pointed manner different abodes in the state of eternal damnation corresponding to various sins. Therefore anger is a mortal sin. Praeterea, quidquid contrariatur caritati est peccatum mortale. Sed ira de se contrariatur caritati, ut patet per Hieronymum, super illud Matth. V, qui irascitur fratri suo etc., ubi dicit quod hoc est contra proximi dilectionem. Ergo ira est peccatum mortale. Obj. 3: Further, whatsoever is contrary to charity is a mortal sin. Now anger is of itself contrary to charity, as Jerome declares in his commentary on Matt. 5:22, Whosoever is angry with his brother, etc. where he says that this is contrary to the love of your neighbor. Therefore anger is a mortal sin. Sed contra est quod super illud Psalmi, irascimini et nolite peccare, dicit Glossa, venialis est ira quae non perducitur ad effectum. On the contrary, A gloss on Ps. 4:5, Be ye angry and sin not, says: Anger is venial if it does not proceed to action. Respondeo dicendum quod motus irae potest esse inordinatus et peccatum dupliciter, sicut dictum est. Uno modo, ex parte appetibilis, utpote cum aliquis appetit iniustam vindictam. Et sic ex genere suo ira est peccatum mortale, quia contrariatur caritati et iustitiae. Potest tamen contingere quod talis appetitus sit peccatum veniale propter imperfectionem actus. Quae quidem imperfectio attenditur vel ex parte appetentis, puta cum motus irae praevenit iudicium rationis, vel etiam ex parte appetibilis, puta cum aliquis appetit in aliquo modico se vindicare, quod quasi nihil est reputandum, ita quod etiam si actu inferatur, non esset peccatum mortale; puta si aliquis parum trahat aliquem puerum per capillos, vel aliquid huiusmodi. Alio modo potest esse motus irae inordinatus quantum ad modum irascendi, utpote si nimis ardenter irascatur interius, vel si nimis exterius manifestet signa irae. Et sic ira secundum se non habet ex suo genere rationem peccati mortalis. Potest tamen contingere quod sit peccatum mortale, puta si ex vehementia irae aliquis excidat a dilectione Dei et proximi. I answer that, The movement of anger may be inordinate and sinful in two ways, as stated above (A. 2). First, on the part of the appetible object, as when one desires unjust revenge; and thus anger is a mortal sin in the point of its genus, because it is contrary to charity and justice. Nevertheless such like anger may happen to be a venial sin by reason of the imperfection of the act. This imperfection is considered either in relation to the subject desirous of vengeance, as when the movement of anger forestalls the judgment of his reason; or in relation to the desired object, as when one desires to be avenged in a trifling matter, which should be deemed of no account, so that even if one proceeded to action, it would not be a mortal sin, for instance by pulling a child slightly by the hair, or by some other like action. Second, the movement of anger may be inordinate in the mode of being angry, for instance, if one be too fiercely angry inwardly, or if one exceed in the outward signs of anger. In this way anger is not a mortal sin in the point of its genus; yet it may happen to be a mortal sin, for instance if through the fierceness of his anger a man fall away from the love of God and his neighbor. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod ex illa auctoritate non habetur quod omnis ira sit peccatum mortale, sed quod stulti per iracundiam spiritualiter occiduntur, inquantum scilicet, non refrenando per rationem motum irae, dilabuntur in aliqua peccata mortalia, puta in blasphemiam Dei vel in iniuriam proximi. Reply Obj. 1: It does not follow from the passage quoted that all anger is a mortal sin, but that the foolish are killed spiritually by anger, because, through not checking the movement of anger by their reason, they fall into mortal sins, for instance by blaspheming God or by doing injury to their neighbor. Ad secundum dicendum quod dominus verbum illud dixit de ira, quasi superaddens ad illud verbum legis, qui occiderit, reus erit iudicio. Unde loquitur ibi dominus de motu irae quo quis appetit proximi occisionem, aut quamcumque gravem laesionem, cui appetitui si consensus rationis superveniat, absque dubio erit peccatum mortale. Reply Obj. 2: Our Lord said this of anger, by way of addition to the words of the Law: Whosoever shall kill shall be in danger of the judgment (Matt 5:21). Consequently our Lord is speaking here of the movement of anger wherein a man desires the killing or any grave injury of his neighbor: and should the consent of reason be given to this desire, without doubt it will be a mortal sin. Ad tertium dicendum quod in illo casu in quo ira contrariatur caritati, est peccatum mortale, sed hoc non semper accidit, ut ex dictis patet. Reply Obj. 3: In the case where anger is contrary to charity, it is a mortal sin, but it is not always so, as appears from what we have said. Articulus 4 Article 4 Utrum ira sit gravissimum peccatum Whether anger is the most grievous sin? Ad quartum sic proceditur. Videtur quod ira sit gravissimum peccatum. Dicit enim Chrysostomus quod nihil est turpius visu furentis, et nihil deformius severo visu, et multo magis, anima. Ergo ira est gravissimum peccatum. Objection 1: It would seem that anger is the most grievous sin. For Chrysostom says that nothing is more repulsive than the look of an angry man, and nothing uglier than a ruthless face, and most of all than a cruel soul. Therefore anger is the most grievous sin. Praeterea, quanto aliquod peccatum est magis nocivum, tanto videtur esse peius, quia sicut Augustinus dicit, in Enchirid., malum dicitur aliquid quod nocet. Ira autem maxime nocet, quia aufert homini rationem, per quam est dominus sui ipsius; dicit enim Chrysostomus quod irae et insaniae nihil est medium, sed ira temporaneus est quidam Daemon, magis autem et Daemonium habente difficilius. Ergo ira est gravissimum peccatum. Obj. 2: Further, the more hurtful a sin is, the worse it would seem to be; since, according to Augustine (Enchiridion xii), a thing is said to be evil because it hurts. Now anger is most hurtful, because it deprives man of his reason, whereby he is master of himself; for Chrysostom says (Hom. xlviii in Joan.) that anger differs in no way from madness; it is a demon while it lasts, indeed more troublesome than one harassed by a demon. Therefore anger is the most grievous sin.