Quaestio 181 Question 181 De vita activa The Active Life Deinde considerandum est de vita activa. Et circa hoc quaeruntur quatuor. We must now consider the active life, under which head there are four points of inquiry: Primo, utrum omnia opera virtutum moralium pertineant ad vitam activam. (1) Whether all the works of the moral virtues pertain to the active life? Secundo, utrum prudentia pertineat ad vitam activam. (2) Whether prudence pertains to the active life? Tertio, utrum doctrina pertineat ad vitam activam. (3) Whether teaching pertains to the active life? Quarto, de diuturnitate vitae activae. (4) Of the duration of the active life. Articulus 1 Article 1 Utrum omnes actus virtutum moralium pertineant ad vitam activam Whether all the actions of the moral virtues pertain to the active life? Ad primum sic proceditur. Videtur quod non omnes actus virtutum moralium pertineant ad vitam activam. Vita enim activa videtur consistere solum in his quae sunt ad alterum, dicit enim Gregorius, super Ezech., quod activa vita est panem esurienti tribuere, et in fine, multis enumeratis quae ad alterum pertinent, subdit, et quae singulis quibusque expediunt dispensare. Sed non per omnes actus virtutum moralium ordinamur ad alios, sed solum secundum iustitiam et partes eius, ut ex supra dictis patet. Non ergo actus omnium virtutum moralium pertinent ad vitam activam. Objection 1: It would seem that the acts of the moral virtues do not all pertain to the active life. For seemingly the active life regards only our relations with other persons: hence Gregory says (Hom. xiv in Ezech.) that the active life is to give bread to the hungry, and after mentioning many things that regard our relations with other people he adds finally, and to give to each and every one whatever he needs. Now we are directed in our relations to others, not by all the acts of moral virtues, but only by those of justice and its parts, as stated above (Q. 58, AA. 2, 8; I-II, Q. 60, AA. 2, 3). Therefore the acts of the moral virtues do not all pertain to the active life. Praeterea, Gregorius dicit, super Ezech., quod per Liam, quae fuit lippa sed fecunda, significatur vita activa, quae, dum occupatur in opere, minus videt; sed dum modo per verbum, modo per exemplum ad imitationem suam proximos accendit, multos in bono opere filios generat. Hoc autem magis videtur pertinere ad caritatem, per quam diligimus proximum, quam ad virtutes morales. Ergo videtur quod actus virtutum moralium non pertineant ad vitam activam. Obj. 2: Further, Gregory says (Hom. xiv in Ezech.) that Lia who was blear-eyed but fruitful signifies the active life: which being occupied with work, sees less, and yet since it urges one’s neighbor both by word and example to its imitation it begets a numerous offspring of good deeds. Now this would seem to belong to charity, whereby we love our neighbor, rather than to the moral virtues. Therefore seemingly the acts of moral virtue do not pertain to the active life. Praeterea, sicut supra dictum est, virtutes morales disponunt ad vitam contemplativam. Sed dispositio et perfectio pertinent ad idem. Ergo videtur quod virtutes morales non pertineant ad vitam activam. Obj. 3: Further, as stated above (Q. 180, A. 2), the moral virtues dispose one to the contemplative life. Now disposition and perfection belong to the same thing. Therefore it would seem that the moral virtues do not pertain to the active life. Sed contra est quod Isidorus dicit, in libro de summo bono, in activa vita prius per exercitium boni operis cuncta exhaurienda sunt vitia, ut in contemplativa iam pura mentis acie ad contemplandum Deum quisque pertranseat. Sed cuncta vitia non exhauriuntur nisi per actus virtutum moralium. Ergo actus virtutum moralium ad vitam activam pertinent. On the contrary, Isidore says (De Summo Bono iii, 15): In the active life all vices must first of all be extirpated by the practice of good works, in order that in the contemplative life the mind’s eye being purified one may advance to the contemplation of the Divine light. Now all vices are not extirpated save by acts of the moral virtues. Therefore the acts of the moral virtues pertain to the active life. Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut supra dictum est, vita activa et contemplativa distinguuntur secundum diversa studia hominum intendentium ad diversos fines, quorum unum est consideratio veritatis, quae est finis vitae contemplativae, aliud autem est exterior operatio, ad quam ordinatur vita activa. I answer that, As stated above (Q. 179, A. 1) the active and the contemplative life differ according to the different occupations of men intent on different ends: one of which occupations is the consideration of the truth; and this is the end of the contemplative life, while the other is external work to which the active life is directed. Manifestum est autem quod in virtutibus moralibus non principaliter quaeritur contemplatio veritatis, sed ordinantur ad operandum, unde philosophus dicit, in II Ethic., quod ad virtutem scire quidem parum aut nihil potest. Unde manifestum est quod virtutes morales pertinent essentialiter ad vitam activam. Unde et philosophus, in X Ethic., virtutes morales ordinat ad felicitatem activam. Now it is evident that the moral virtues are directed chiefly, not to the contemplation of truth but to operation. Wherefore the Philosopher says (Ethic. ii, 4) that for virtue knowledge is of little or no avail. Hence it is clear that the moral virtues belong essentially to the active life; for which reason the Philosopher (Ethic. x, 8) subordinates the moral virtues to active happiness. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod inter virtutes morales praecipua est iustitia, qua aliquis ad alterum ordinatur, ut philosophus probat, in V Ethic. Unde vita activa describitur per ea quae ad alterum ordinantur, non quia in his solum, sed quia in his principalius consistit. Reply Obj. 1: The chief of the moral virtues is justice by which one man is directed in his relations towards another, as the Philosopher proves (Ethic. v, 1). Hence the active life is described with reference to our relations with other people, because it consists in these things, not exclusively, but principally. Ad secundum dicendum quod per actus omnium virtutum moralium potest aliquis proximos suo exemplo dirigere ad bonum, quod Gregorius ibidem attribuit vitae activae. Reply Obj. 2: It is possible, by the acts of all the moral virtues, for one to direct one’s neighbor to good by example: and this is what Gregory here ascribes to the active life. Ad tertium dicendum quod, sicut virtus quae ordinatur in finem alterius virtutis, transit quodammodo in speciem eius; ita etiam quando aliquis utitur his quae sunt vitae activae solum prout disponunt ad contemplationem, comprehenduntur sub vita contemplativa. In his autem qui operibus virtutum moralium intendunt tanquam secundum se bonis, non autem tanquam disponentibus ad vitam contemplativam, virtutes morales pertinent ad vitam activam. Reply Obj. 3: Even as the virtue that is directed to the end of another virtue passes, as it were, into the species of the latter virtue, so again when a man makes use of things pertaining to the active life, merely as dispositions to contemplation, such things are comprised under the contemplative life. On the other hand, when we practice the works of the moral virtues, as being good in themselves, and not as dispositions to the contemplative life, the moral virtues belong to the active life. Quamvis etiam dici possit quod vita activa dispositio sit ad contemplativam. It may also be replied, however, that the active life is a disposition to the contemplative life. Articulus 2 Article 2 Utrum prudentia pertineat ad vitam activam Whether prudence pertains to the active life? Ad secundum sic proceditur. Videtur quod prudentia non pertineat ad vitam activam. Sicut enim vita contemplativa pertinet ad vim cognitivam, ita activa ad vim appetitivam. Prudentia autem non pertinet ad vim appetitivam, sed magis ad cognitivam. Ergo prudentia non pertinet ad vitam activam. Objection 1: It would seem that prudence does not pertain to the active life. For just as the contemplative life belongs to the cognitive power, so the active life belongs to the appetitive power. Now prudence belongs not to the appetitive but to the cognitive power. Therefore prudence does not belong to the active life. Praeterea, Gregorius dicit, super Ezech., quod activa vita, dum occupatur in opere, minus videt, unde significatur per Liam, quae lippos oculos habebat. Prudentia autem requirit claros oculos, ut recte iudicet homo de agendis. Ergo videtur quod prudentia non pertineat ad vitam activam. Obj. 2: Further, Gregory says (Hom. xiv in Ezech.) that the active life being occupied with work, sees less, wherefore it is signified by Lia who was blear-eyed. But prudence requires clear eyes, so that one may judge aright of what has to be done. Therefore it seems that prudence does not pertain to the active life. Praeterea, prudentia media est inter virtutes morales et intellectuales. Sed sicut virtutes morales pertinent ad vitam activam, ut dictum est, ita intellectuales ad contemplativam. Ergo videtur quod prudentia pertineat neque ad vitam activam neque ad contemplativam, sed ad medium vivendi genus quod Augustinus ponit, XIX de Civ. Dei. Obj. 3: Further, prudence stands between the moral and the intellectual virtues. Now just as the moral virtues belong to the active life, as stated above (A. 1), so do the intellectual virtues pertain to the contemplative life. Therefore it would seem that prudence pertains neither to the active nor to the contemplative life, but to an intermediate kind of life, of which Augustine makes mention (De Civ. Dei xix, 2, 3, 19). Sed contra est quod philosophus, in X Ethic., prudentiam pertinere dicit ad felicitatem activam, ad quam pertinent virtutes morales. On the contrary, The Philosopher says (Ethic. x, 8) that prudence pertains to active happiness, to which the moral virtues belong. Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut supra dictum est, id quod ordinatur ad aliud sicut ad finem, praecipue in moralibus, trahitur in speciem eius ad quod ordinatur, sicut ille qui moechatur ut furetur, magis dicitur fur quam moechus, secundum philosophum, in V Ethic. Manifestum est autem quod cognitio prudentiae ordinatur ad operationes virtutum moralium sicut ad finem, est enim recta ratio agibilium, ut dicitur in VI Ethic. Unde et fines virtutum moralium sunt principia prudentiae, sicut in eodem libro philosophus dicit. Sicut ergo dictum est quod virtutes morales in eo qui ordinat eas ad quietem contemplationis, pertinent ad vitam contemplativam; ita cognitio prudentiae, quae de se ordinatur ad operationes virtutum moralium, directe pertinet ad vitam activam. Si tamen prudentia proprie sumatur, secundum quod de ea philosophus loquitur. I answer that, As stated above (A. 1, ad 3; I-II, Q. 18, A. 6), if one thing be directed to another as its end, it is drawn, especially in moral matters, to the species of the thing to which it is directed: for instance he who commits adultery that he may steal, is a thief rather than an adulterer, according to the Philosopher (Ethic. v, 2). Now it is evident that the knowledge of prudence is directed to the works of the moral virtues as its end, since it is right reason applied to action (Ethic. vi, 5); so that the ends of the moral virtues are the principles of prudence, as the Philosopher says in the same book. Accordingly, as it was stated above (A. 1, ad 3) that the moral virtues in one who directs them to the quiet of contemplation belong to the contemplative life, so the knowledge of prudence, which is of itself directed to the works of the moral virtues, belongs directly to the active life, provided we take prudence in its proper sense as the Philosopher speaks of it. Si autem sumatur communius, prout scilicet comprehendit qualemcumque humanam cognitionem, sic prudentia quantum ad aliquam sui partem pertineret ad vitam contemplativam, secundum quod Tullius dicit, in I de Offic., quod qui acutissime et celerrime potest et videre verum et explicare rationem, is prudentissimus et sapientissimus rite haberi solet. If, however, we take it in a more general sense, as comprising any kind of human knowledge, then prudence, as regards a certain part thereof, belongs to the contemplative life. In this sense Tully (De Offic. i, 5) says that the man who is able most clearly and quickly to grasp the truth and to unfold his reasons, is wont to be considered most prudent and wise. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod operationes morales specificantur ex fine, ut supra habitum est. Et ideo ad vitam contemplativam illa cognitio pertinet quae finem habet in ipsa cognitione veritatis, cognitio autem prudentiae, quae magis habet finem in actu appetitivae virtutis, pertinet ad vitam activam. Reply Obj. 1: Moral works take their species from their end, as stated above (I-II, Q. 18, AA. 4, 6), wherefore the knowledge pertaining to the contemplative life is that which has its end in the very knowledge of truth; whereas the knowledge of prudence, through having its end in an act of the appetitive power, belongs to the active life. Ad secundum dicendum quod occupatio exterior facit hominem minus videre in rebus intelligibilibus, quae sunt separatae a sensibilibus, in quibus operationes activae vitae consistunt. Sed tamen occupatio exterior activae vitae facit hominem magis clare videre in iudicio agibilium, quod pertinet ad prudentiam. Tum propter experientiam. Tum propter mentis attentionem, quia, ubi intenderis, ibi ingenium valet, ut Sallustius dicit. Reply Obj. 2: External occupation makes a man see less in intelligible things, which are separated from sensible objects with which the works of the active life are concerned. Nevertheless the external occupation of the active life enables a man to see more clearly in judging of what is to be done, which belongs to prudence, both on account of experience, and on account of the mind’s attention, since brains avail when the mind is attentive as Sallust observes. Ad tertium dicendum quod prudentia dicitur esse media inter virtutes intellectuales et morales quantum ad hoc, quod in subiecto convenit cum virtutibus intellectualibus, in materia autem totaliter convenit cum moralibus. Illud autem tertium genus vivendi medium est inter activam vitam et contemplativam quantum ad ea circa quae occupatur, quia quandoque occupatur in contemplatione veritatis, quandoque autem occupatur circa exteriora. Reply Obj. 3: Prudence is said to be intermediate between the intellectual and the moral virtues because it resides in the same subject as the intellectual virtues, and has absolutely the same matter as the moral virtues. But this third kind of life is intermediate between the active and the contemplative life as regards the things about which it is occupied, because it is occupied sometimes with the contemplation of the truth, sometimes with external things. Articulus 3 Article 3 Utrum docere sit actus vitae activae aut contemplativae Whether teaching is a work of the active or of the contemplative life? Ad tertium sic proceditur. Videtur quod docere non sit actus vitae activae, sed contemplativae. Dicit enim Gregorius, super Ezech., quod viri perfecti bona caelestia quae contemplari potuerunt, fratribus denuntiant, eorumque animos in amorem intimae claritatis accendunt. Sed hoc pertinet ad doctrinam. Ergo docere est actus vitae contemplativae. Objection 1: It would seem that teaching is a work not of the active but of the contemplative life. For Gregory says (Hom. v in Ezech.) that the perfect who have been able to contemplate heavenly goods, at least through a glass, proclaim them to their brethren, whose minds they inflame with love for their hidden beauty. But this pertains to teaching. Therefore teaching is a work of the contemplative life. Praeterea, ad idem genus vitae videtur reduci actus et habitus. Sed docere est actus sapientiae, dicit enim philosophus, in principio Metaphys., quod signum scientis est posse docere. Cum ergo sapientia vel scientia pertineat ad vitam contemplativam, videtur quod etiam doctrina ad vitam contemplativam pertineat. Obj. 2: Further, act and habit would seem to be referable to the same kind of life. Now teaching is an act of wisdom: for the Philosopher says (Metaph. i, 1) that to be able to teach is an indication of knowledge. Therefore since wisdom or knowledge pertain to the contemplative life, it would seem that teaching also belongs to the contemplative life. Praeterea, sicut contemplatio est actus vitae contemplativae, ita et oratio. Sed oratio qua quis orat pro alio, nihilominus pertinet ad vitam contemplativam. Ergo quod aliquis veritatem meditatam in alterius notitiam per doctrinam deducat, videtur ad vitam contemplativam pertinere. Obj. 3: Further, prayer, no less than contemplation, is an act of the contemplative life. Now prayer, even when one prays for another, belongs to the contemplative life. Therefore it would seem that it belongs also to the contemplative life to acquaint another, by teaching him, of the truth we have meditated. Sed contra est quod Gregorius dicit, super Ezech., activa vita est panem esurienti tribuere, verbo sapientiae nescientem docere. On the contrary, Gregory says (Hom. xiv in Ezech.): The active life is to give bread to the hungry, to teach the ignorant the words of wisdom.