Ad primum ergo dicendum quod ad perfectionem vitae dominus pertinere dixit quod aliquis eum sequatur, non qualitercumque, sed ut ulterius retro non abiret, unde ipse dicit, Luc. IX, nemo mittens manum ad aratrum et respiciens retro, aptus est regno Dei. Et quamvis quidam de discipulis eius retrorsum abierint, tamen Petrus, loco aliorum, domino interroganti, nunquid et vos vultis abire? Respondit, domine, ad quem ibimus? Unde et Augustinus dicit, in libro de consensu Evangelist., quod, sicut Matthaeus et Marcus narrant, Petrus et Andreas, non subductis ad terram navibus, tanquam causa redeundi, secuti sunt eum, sed tanquam iubentem ut sequerentur. Haec autem immobilitas sequelae Christi firmatur per votum. Et ideo votum requiritur ad perfectionem religionis. Reply Obj. 1: Our Lord declared that it belongs to the perfection of life that a man follow Him, not anyhow, but in such a way as not to turn back. Wherefore He says again (Luke 9:62): No man putting his hand to the plough, and looking back, is fit for the kingdom of God. And though some of His disciples went back, yet when our Lord asked (John 6:68, 69), Will you also go away?, Peter answered for the others: Lord, to whom shall we go? Hence Augustine says (De Consensu Ev. ii, 17) that as Matthew and Mark relate, Peter and Andrew followed Him after drawing their boats on to the beach, not as though they purposed to return, but as following Him at His command. Now this unwavering following of Christ is made fast by a vow: wherefore a vow is requisite for religious perfection. Ad secundum dicendum quod perfectio religionis requirit, sicut Gregorius dicit, ut aliquis omne quod vivit Deo exhibeat. Sed homo non potest totam vitam suam actu Deo exhibere, quia non est tota simul, sed successive agitur. Unde non aliter homo potest totam vitam Deo exhibere nisi per voti obligationem. Reply Obj. 2: As Gregory says (Moral. ii) religious perfection requires that a man give his whole life to God. But a man cannot actually give God his whole life, because that life taken as a whole is not simultaneous but successive. Hence a man cannot give his whole life to God otherwise than by the obligation of a vow. Ad tertium dicendum quod inter alia quae licet nobis non impendere, est etiam propria libertas, quam homo ceteris rebus cariorem habet. Unde cum aliquis propria sponte voto sibi adimit libertatem abstinendi ab his quae ad Dei servitium pertinent, hoc fit Deo acceptissimum. Unde Augustinus dicit, in epistola ad Armentarium et Paulinam, non te vovisse poeniteat, immo gaude iam tibi non licere quod cum tuo detrimento licuisset. Felix necessitas quae in meliora compellit. Reply Obj. 3: Among other services that we can lawfully give, is our liberty, which is dearer to man than aught else. Consequently when a man of his own accord deprives himself by vow of the liberty of abstaining from things pertaining to God’s service, this is most acceptable to God. Hence Augustine says (Ep. cxxvii ad Paulin. et Arment.): Repent not of thy vow; rejoice rather that thou canst no longer do lawfully, what thou mightest have done lawfully but to thy own cost. Happy the obligation that compels to better things. Articulus 7 Article 7 Utrum convenienter dicatur in his tribus votis consistere religionis perfectionem Whether it is right to say that religious perfection consists in these three vows? Ad septimum sic proceditur. Videtur quod inconvenienter dicatur in his tribus votis consistere religionis perfectionem. Perfectio enim vitae magis consistit in interioribus quam in exterioribus actibus, secundum illud Rom. XIV, non est regnum Dei esca et potus, sed iustitia et pax et gaudium in spiritu sancto. Sed per votum religionis aliquis obligatur ad ea quae sunt perfectionis. Ergo magis deberent ad religionem pertinere vota interiorum actuum, puta contemplationis, dilectionis Dei et proximi, et aliorum huiusmodi, quam votum paupertatis, continentiae et obedientiae, quae pertinent ad exteriores actus. Objection 1: It would seem that it is not right to say that religious perfection consists in these three vows. For the perfection of life consists of inward rather than of outward acts, according to Rom. 14:17, The Kingdom of God is not meat and drink, but justice and peace and joy in the Holy Spirit. Now the religious vow binds a man to things belonging to perfection. Therefore vows of inward actions, such as contemplation, love of God and our neighbor, and so forth, should pertain to the religious state, rather than the vows of poverty, continence, and obedience which refer to outward actions. Praeterea, praedicta tria cadunt sub voto religionis inquantum pertinent ad quoddam exercitium tendendi in perfectionem. Sed multa alia sunt in quibus religiosi exercitantur, sicut abstinentia, vigiliae et alia huiusmodi. Ergo videtur quod inconvenienter ista tria vota dicantur essentialiter ad statum perfectionis pertinere. Obj. 2: Further, the three aforesaid come under the religious vow, insofar as they belong to the practice of tending to perfection. But there are many other things that religious practice, such as abstinence, watchings, and the like. Therefore it would seem that these three vows are incorrectly described as pertaining to the state of perfection. Praeterea, per votum obedientiae aliquis obligatur ad omnia implenda, secundum praeceptum superioris, quae ad exercitium perfectionis pertinent. Ergo sufficit votum obedientiae, absque aliis duobus votis. Obj. 3: Further, by the vow of obedience a man is bound to do according to his superior’s command whatever pertains to the practice of perfection. Therefore the vow of obedience suffices without the two other vows. Praeterea, ad exteriora bona pertinent non solum divitiae, sed etiam honores. Si ergo per votum paupertatis religiosi terrenas divitias abdicant, debet esse etiam aliud votum per quod honores mundanos contemnant. Obj. 4: Further, external goods comprise not only riches but also honors. Therefore, if religious, by the vow of poverty, renounce earthly riches, there should be another vow whereby they may despise worldly honors. Sed contra est quod dicitur extra, de statu monachorum, quod custodia castitatis et abdicatio proprietatis sunt annexa regulae monachali. On the contrary, It is stated (Extra, de Statu Monach., cap. Cum ad monasterium) that the keeping of chastity and the renouncing of property are affixed to the monastic rule. Respondeo dicendum quod religionis status potest considerari tripliciter, uno modo, secundum quod est quoddam exercitium tendendi in perfectionem caritatis; alio modo, secundum quod quietat humanum animum ab exterioribus sollicitudinibus, secundum illud I ad Cor. VII, volo vos sine sollicitudine esse; tertio modo, secundum quod est quoddam holocaustum, per quod aliquis totaliter se et sua offert Deo. Et secundum hoc, ex his tribus votis integratur religionis status. I answer that, The religious state may be considered in three ways. First, as being a practice of tending to the perfection of charity: second, as quieting the human mind from outward solicitude, according to 1 Cor. 7:32: I would have you to be without solicitude: third, as a holocaust whereby a man offers himself and his possessions wholly to God; and in corresponding manner the religious state is constituted by these three vows. Primo enim, quantum ad exercitium perfectionis, requiritur quod aliquis a se removeat illa per quae posset impediri ne totaliter eius affectus tendat in Deum, in quo consistit perfectio caritatis. Huiusmodi autem sunt tria. Primo quidem, cupiditas exteriorum bonorum. Quae tollitur per votum paupertatis. Secundum autem est concupiscentia sensibilium delectationum, inter quas praecellunt delectationes venereae. Quae excluduntur per votum continentiae. Tertium autem est inordinatio voluntatis humanae. Quae excluditur per votum obedientiae. Similiter autem sollicitudinis saecularis inquietudo praecipue ingeritur homini circa tria. Primo quidem, circa dispensationem exteriorum rerum. Et haec sollicitudo per votum paupertatis homini aufertur. Secundo, circa gubernationem uxoris et filiorum. Quae amputatur per votum continentiae. Tertio, circa dispositionem propriorum actuum. Quae amputatur per votum obedientiae, quo aliquis se alterius dispositioni committit. First, as regards the practice of perfection a man is required to remove from himself whatever may hinder his affections from tending wholly to God, for it is in this that the perfection of charity consists. Such hindrances are of three kinds. First, the attachment to external goods, which is removed by the vow of poverty; second, the concupiscence of sensible pleasures, chief among which are venereal pleasures, and these are removed by the vow of continence; third, the inordinateness of the human will, and this is removed by the vow of obedience. In like manner the disquiet of worldly solicitude is aroused in man in reference especially to three things. First, as regards the dispensing of external things, and this solicitude is removed from man by the vow of poverty; second, as regards the control of wife and children, which is cut away by the vow of continence; third, as regards the disposal of one’s own actions, which is eliminated by the vow of obedience, whereby a man commits himself to the disposal of another. Similiter etiam holocaustum est cum aliquis totum quod habet, offert Deo, ut Gregorius dicit, super Ezech. Habet autem homo triplex bonum, secundum philosophum, in I Ethic. Primo quidem, exteriorum rerum. Quas quidem totaliter aliquis Deo offert per votum voluntariae paupertatis. Secundo autem, bonum proprii corporis. Quod aliquis praecipue offert Deo per votum continentiae, quo abrenuntiat maximis delectationibus corporis. Tertium autem bonum est animae. Quod aliquis totaliter Deo offert per obedientiam, qua aliquis offert Deo propriam voluntatem, per quam homo utitur omnibus potentiis et habitibus animae. Et ideo convenienter ex tribus votis status religionis integratur. Again, A holocaust is the offering to God of all that one has, according to Gregory (Hom. xx in Ezech.). Now man has a threefold good, according to the Philosopher (Ethic. i, 8). First, the good of external things, which he wholly offers to God by the vow of voluntary poverty: second, the good of his own body, and this good he offers to God especially by the vow of continence, whereby he renounces the greatest bodily pleasures. The third is the good of the soul, which man wholly offers to God by the vow of obedience, whereby he offers God his own will by which he makes use of all the powers and habits of the soul. Therefore the religious state is fittingly constituted by the three vows. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod, sicut supra dictum est, status religionis ordinatur sicut ad finem ad perfectionem caritatis, ad quam pertinent omnes interiores actus virtutum, quarum mater est caritas, secundum illud I ad Cor. XIII, caritas patiens est, benigna est, et cetera. Et ideo interiores actus virtutum, puta humilitatis, patientiae et huiusmodi, non cadunt sub voto religionis, quod ordinatur ad ipsos sicut ad finem. Reply Obj. 1: As stated above (A. 1), the end whereunto the religious vow is directed is the perfection of charity, since all the interior acts of virtue belong to charity as to their mother, according to 1 Cor. 13:4, Charity is patient, is kind, etc. Hence the interior acts of virtue, for instance, humility, patience, and so forth, do not come under the religious vow, but this is directed to them as its end. Ad secundum dicendum quod omnes aliae religionum observantiae ordinantur ad praedicta tria principalia vota. Nam si qua sunt instituta in religionibus ad procurandum victum, puta labor, mendicitas vel alia huiusmodi, referuntur ad paupertatem, ad cuius conservationem religiosi per hos modos victum suum procurant. Alia vero, quibus corpus maceratur, sicut vigiliae, ieiunia et si qua sunt huiusmodi, directe ordinantur ad votum continentiae observandum. Si qua vero sunt in religionibus instituta pertinentia ad humanos actus, quibus aliquis ordinatur ad religionis finem, scilicet ad dilectionem Dei et proximi, puta lectio, oratio, visitatio infirmorum, vel si quid aliud est huiusmodi, comprehenduntur sub voto obedientiae, quod pertinet ad voluntatem, quae secundum dispositionem alterius suos actus ordinat in finem. Determinatio autem habitus pertinet ad omnia tria vota, tanquam signum obligationis. Unde habitus regularis simul datur, vel benedicitur, cum professione. Reply Obj. 2: All other religious observances are directed to the three aforesaid principal vows; for if any of them are ordained for the purpose of procuring a livelihood, such as labor, questing, and so on, they are to be referred to poverty; for the safeguarding of which religious seek a livelihood by these means. Other observances whereby the body is chastised, such as watching, fasting, and the like, are directly ordained for the observance of the vow of continence. And such religious observances as regard human actions whereby a man is directed to the end of religion, namely the love of God and his neighbor (such as reading, prayer, visiting the sick, and the like), are comprised under the vow of obedience that applies to the will, which directs its actions to the end according to the ordering of another person. The distinction of habit belongs to all three vows, as a sign of being bound by them: wherefore the religious habit is given or blessed at the time of profession. Ad tertium dicendum quod per obedientiam aliquis offert Deo suam voluntatem, cui etsi subiiciantur omnia humana, quaedam tamen sunt quae specialiter sibi tantum subduntur, scilicet actiones humanae, nam passiones pertinent etiam ad appetitum sensitivum. Et ideo ad cohibendum passiones carnalium delectationum et exteriorum appetibilium impedientes perfectionem vitae, necessarium fuit votum continentiae et paupertatis, sed ad disponendum actiones proprias secundum quod requirit perfectionis status, requiritur votum obedientiae. Reply Obj. 3: By obedience a man offers to God his will, to which though all human affairs are subject, yet some are subject to it alone in a special manner, namely human actions, since passions belong also to the sensitive appetite. Wherefore in order to restrain the passions of carnal pleasures and of external objects of appetite, which hinder the perfection of life, there was need for the vows of continence and poverty; but for the ordering of one’s own actions accordingly as the state of perfection requires, there was need for the vow of obedience. Ad quartum dicendum quod, sicut philosophus dicit, in IV Ethic., honor proprie et secundum veritatem non debetur nisi virtuti, sed quia exteriora bona instrumentaliter deserviunt ad quosdam actus virtutum, ex consequenti etiam eorum excellentiae honor aliquis exhibetur; et praecipue a vulgo, quod solam excellentiam exteriorem recognoscit. Honorem igitur qui a Deo et sanctis viris hominibus exhibetur propter virtutem, prout dicitur in Psalmo, mihi autem nimis honorati sunt amici tui, Deus, non competit religiosis abrenuntiare, qui ad perfectionem virtutis tendunt. Honori autem qui exhibetur exteriori excellentiae, abrenuntiant ex hoc ipso quod saecularem vitam derelinquunt. Unde ad hoc non requiritur speciale votum. Reply Obj. 4: As the Philosopher says (Ethic. iv, 3), strictly and truly speaking honor is not due save to virtue. Since, however, external goods serve instrumentally for certain acts of virtue, the consequence is that a certain honor is given to their excellence especially by the common people who acknowledge none but outward excellence. Therefore since religious tend to the perfection of virtue it becomes them not to renounce the honor which God and all holy men accord to virtue, according to Ps. 138:17, But to me Thy friends, O God, are made exceedingly honorable. On the other hand, they renounce the honor that is given to outward excellence, by the very fact that they withdraw from a worldly life: hence no special vow is needed for this. Articulus 8 Article 8 Utrum votum obedientiae sit potissimum inter tria vota religionis Whether the vow of obedience is the chief of the three religious vows? Ad octavum sic proceditur. Videtur quod votum obedientiae non sit potissimum inter tria vota religionis. Perfectio enim religiosae vitae a Christo sumpsit exordium. Sed Christus specialiter dedit consilium de paupertate, non autem invenitur dedisse consilium de obedientia. Ergo votum paupertatis est potius quam votum obedientiae. Objection 1: It would seem that the vow of obedience is not the chief of the three religious vows. For the perfection of the religious life was inaugurated by Christ. Now Christ gave a special counsel of poverty; whereas He is not stated to have given a special counsel of obedience. Therefore the vow of poverty is greater than the vow of obedience. Praeterea, Eccli. XXVI dicitur quod omnis ponderatio non est digna animae continentis. Sed votum dignioris rei est eminentius. Ergo votum continentiae est eminentius quam votum obedientiae. Obj. 2: Further, it is written (Sir 26:20) that no price is worthy of a continent soul. Now the vow of that which is more worthy is itself more excellent. Therefore the vow of continence is more excellent than the vow of obedience. Praeterea, quanto aliquod votum est potius, tanto videtur esse magis indispensabile. Sed vota paupertatis et continentiae sunt adeo annexa regulae monachali ut contra ea nec summus pontifex possit licentiam indulgere, sicut dicit quaedam decretalis, de statu monachorum, qui tamen potest indulgere ut religiosus non obediat suo praelato. Ergo videtur quod votum obedientiae sit minus voto paupertatis et continentiae. Obj. 3: Further, the greater a vow the more indispensable it would seem to be. Now the vows of poverty and continence are so inseparable from the monastic rule, that not even the Sovereign Pontiff can allow them to be broken, according to a Decretal (De Statu Monach., cap. Cum ad monasterium): yet he can dispense a religious from obeying his superior. Therefore it would seem that the vow of obedience is less than the vow of poverty and continence. Sed contra est quod Gregorius dicit, XXXV Moral., obedientia victimis iure praeponitur, quia per victimas aliena caro, per obedientiam vero voluntas propria mactatur. Sed vota religionis sunt quaedam holocausta, sicut supra dictum est. Ergo votum obedientiae est praecipuum inter omnia religionis vota. On the contrary, Gregory says (Moral. xxxv, 14): Obedience is rightly placed before victims, since by victims another’s flesh, but by obedience one’s own will, is sacrificed. Now the religious vows are holocausts, as stated above (AA. 1, 3, ad 6). Therefore the vow of obedience is the chief of all religious vows. Respondeo dicendum quod votum obedientiae est praecipuum inter tria vota religionis. Et hoc, triplici ratione. I answer that, The vow of obedience is the chief of the three religious vows, and this for three reasons. Primo quidem, quia per votum obedientiae aliquid maius homo offert Deo, scilicet ipsam voluntatem, quae est potior quam corpus proprium, quod offert homo Deo per continentiam; et quam res exteriores, quas offert homo Deo per votum paupertatis. Unde illud quod fit ex obedientia, est magis Deo acceptum quam id quod fit per propriam voluntatem, secundum quod Hieronymus dicit, ad rusticum monachum, ad illud tendit oratio, ut doceam te non tuo arbitrio dimittendum; et post pauca, non facias quod vis, comedas quod iuberis, habeas quantum acceperis, vestiaris quod datur. Unde et ieiunium non redditur Deo acceptum cum propria voluntate, secundum illud Isaiae LVIII, ecce, in diebus ieiunii vestri invenitur voluntas vestra. First, because by the vow of obedience man offers God something greater, namely his own will; for this is of more account than his own body, which he offers God by continence, and than external things, which he offers God by the vow of poverty. Wherefore that which is done out of obedience is more acceptable to God than that which is done of one’s own will, according to the saying of Jerome (Ep. cxxv ad Rustic Monach.): My words are intended to teach you not to rely on your own judgment: and a little further on he says: You may not do what you will; you must eat what you are bidden to eat, you may possess as much as you receive, clothe yourself with what is given to you. Hence fasting is not acceptable to God if it is done of one’s own will, according to Isa. 58:3, Behold in the day of your fast your own will is found. Secundo, quia votum obedientiae continet sub se alia vota, sed non convertitur. Nam religiosus etsi teneatur ex voto continentiam servare et paupertatem, tamen haec etiam sub obedientia cadunt, ad quam pertinent multa alia praeter continentiam et paupertatem. Second, because the vow of obedience includes the other vows, but not vice versa: for a religious, though bound by vow to observe continence and poverty, yet these also come under obedience, as well as many other things besides the keeping of continence and poverty. Tertio, quia votum obedientiae proprie se extendit ad actus propinquos fini religionis. Quanto autem aliquid propinquius est fini, tanto melius est. Third, because the vow of obedience extends properly to those acts that are closely connected with the end of religion; and the more closely a thing is connected with the end, the better it is. Et inde etiam est quod votum obedientiae est religioni essentialius. Si enim aliquis, absque voto obedientiae, voluntariam paupertatem et continentiam etiam voto servet, non propter hoc pertinet ad statum religionis, qui praefertur etiam ipsi virginitati ex voto observatae; dicit enim Augustinus, in libro de Virginitat., nemo, quantum puto, ausus fuerit virginitatem praeferre monasterio. It follows from this that the vow of obedience is more essential to the religious life. For if a man without taking a vow of obedience were to observe, even by vow, voluntary poverty and continence, he would not therefore belong to the religious state, which is to be preferred to virginity observed even by vow; for Augustine says (De Virgin. xlvi): No one, methinks, would prefer virginity to the monastic life. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod consilium obedientiae includitur in ipsa Christi sequela, qui enim obedit, sequitur alterius voluntatem. Et ideo magis pertinet ad perfectionem quam votum paupertatis, quia, ut Hieronymus dicit, super Matth., id quod perfectionis est addidit Petrus, cum dixit, et secuti sumus te. Reply Obj. 1: The counsel of obedience was included in the very following of Christ, since to obey is to follow another’s will. Consequently it is more pertinent to perfection than the vow of poverty, because as Jerome, commenting on Matt. 19:27, Behold we have left all things, observes, Peter added that which is perfect when he said: And have followed Thee. Ad secundum dicendum quod ex verbo illo non habetur quod continentia praeferatur omnibus aliis actibus virtuosis, sed coniugali castitati; vel etiam exterioribus divitiis auri et argenti, quae pondere mensurantur. Vel per continentiam intelligitur universaliter abstinentia ab omni malo, ut supra habitum est. Reply Obj. 2: The words quoted mean that continence is to be preferred, not to all other acts of virtue, but to conjugal chastity, or to external riches of gold and silver which are measured by weight. Or again continence is taken in a general sense for abstinence from all evil, as stated above (Q. 155, A. 4, ad 1). Ad tertium dicendum quod Papa in voto obedientiae non potest sic cum religioso dispensare ut nulli praelato teneatur obedire in his quae ad perfectionem vitae pertinent, non enim potest eum a sua obedientia eximere. Potest tamen eum eximere ab inferioris praelati subiectione. Quod non est in voto obedientiae dispensare. Reply Obj. 3: The Pope cannot dispense a religious from his vow of obedience so as to release him from obedience to every superior in matters relating to the perfection of life, for he cannot exempt him from obedience to himself. He can, however, exempt him from subjection to a lower superior, but this is not to dispense him from his vow of obedience. Articulus 9 Article 9 Utrum religiosus semper peccet mortaliter transgrediendo ea quae sunt in regula Whether a religious sins mortally whenever he transgresses the things contained in his rule? Ad nonum sic proceditur. Videtur quod religiosus semper peccet mortaliter transgrediendo ea quae sunt in regula. Facere enim contra votum est peccatum damnabile, ut patet per id quod apostolus dicit, I ad Tim. V, quod viduae quae volunt nubere. Damnationem habent, quia primam fidem irritam fecerunt. Sed religiosi voto professionis ad regulam adstringuntur. Ergo peccant mortaliter transgrediendo ea quae in regula continentur. Objection 1: It would seem that a religious sins mortally whenever he transgresses the things contained in his rule. For to break a vow is a sin worthy of condemnation, as appears from 1 Tim. 5:11, 12, where the Apostle says that widows who will marry have damnation, because they have made void their first faith. But religious are bound to a rule by the vows of their profession. Therefore they sin mortally by transgressing the things contained in their rule. Praeterea, regula imponitur religioso sicut lex quaedam. Sed ille qui transgreditur praeceptum legis, peccat mortaliter. Ergo videtur quod monachus transgrediens ea quae sunt in regula, peccet mortaliter. Obj. 2: Further, the rule is enjoined upon a religious in the same way as a law. Now he who transgresses a precept of law sins mortally. Therefore it would seem that a monk sins mortally if he transgresses the things contained in his rule. Praeterea, contemptus inducit peccatum mortale. Sed quicumque frequenter aliquid iterat quod non debet facere, videtur ex contemptu peccare. Ergo videtur quod, si religiosus frequenter transgrediatur id quod est in regula, peccet mortaliter. Obj. 3: Further, contempt involves a mortal sin. Now whoever repeatedly does what he ought not to do seems to sin from contempt. Therefore it would seem that a religious sins mortally by frequently transgressing the things contained in his rule.