Sic ergo dicendum est quod opus vitae activae est duplex. Unum quidem quod ex plenitudine contemplationis derivatur, sicut doctrina et praedicatio. Unde et Gregorius dicit, in V Homil. super Ezech., quod de perfectis viris post contemplationem suam redeuntibus dicitur, memoriam suavitatis tuae eructabunt. Et hoc praefertur simplici contemplationi. Sicut enim maius est illuminare quam lucere solum, ita maius est contemplata aliis tradere quam solum contemplari. Aliud autem est opus activae vitae quod totaliter consistit in occupatione exteriori, sicut eleemosynas dare, hospites recipere, et alia huiusmodi. Quae sunt minora operibus contemplationis, nisi forte in casu necessitatis, ut ex supra dictis patet. Sic ergo summum gradum in religionibus tenent quae ordinantur ad docendum et praedicandum. Quae et propinquissimae sunt perfectioni episcoporum, sicut et in aliis rebus fines primorum coniunguntur principiis secundorum, ut Dionysius dicit, VII cap. de Div. Nom. Secundum autem gradum tenent illae quae ordinantur ad contemplationem. Tertius est earum quae occupantur circa exteriores actiones. Accordingly we must say that the work of the active life is twofold. One proceeds from the fullness of contemplation, such as teaching and preaching. Wherefore Gregory says (Hom. v in Ezech.) that the words of Ps. 144:7, They shall publish the memory of . . . Thy sweetness, refer to perfect men returning from their contemplation. And this work is more excellent than simple contemplation. For even as it is better to enlighten than merely to shine, so is it better to give to others the fruits of one’s contemplation than merely to contemplate. The other work of the active life consists entirely in outward occupation, for instance almsgiving, receiving guests, and the like, which are less excellent than the works of contemplation, except in cases of necessity, as stated above (Q. 182, A. 1). Accordingly the highest place in religious orders is held by those which are directed to teaching and preaching, which, moreover, are nearest to the episcopal perfection, even as in other things the end of that which is first is in conjunction with the beginning of that which is second, as Dionysius states (Div. Nom. vii). The second place belongs to those which are directed to contemplation, and the third to those which are occupied with external actions. In singulis autem horum graduum potest attendi praeeminentia secundum quod una religio ordinatur ad altiorem actum in eodem genere, sicut inter opera activae, potius est redimere captivos quam recipere hospites; et in operibus contemplativae, potior est oratio quam lectio. Potest etiam attendi praeeminentia, si una earum ad plura horum ordinetur quam alia, vel si convenientiora statuta habeat ad finem propositum consequendum. Moreover, in each of these degrees it may be noted that one religious order excels another through being directed to higher action in the same genus; thus among the works of the active life it is better to ransom captives than to receive guests, and among the works of the contemplative life prayer is better than study. Again one will excel another if it be directed to more of these actions than another, or if it have statutes more adapted to the attainment of the end in view. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod decretalis illa loquitur de vita activa prout ordinatur ad salutem animarum. Reply Obj. 1: This Decretal refers to the active life as directed to the salvation of souls. Ad secundum dicendum quod religiones quae instituuntur propter militiam, directius ordinantur ad hoc quod effundant sanguinem hostium, quam ad hoc quod eorum sanguis fundatur, quod proprie martyribus competit. Nihil tamen prohibet huiusmodi religiosos in aliquo casu meritum martyrii consequi, et in hoc praeferri aliis religiosis, sicut et opera activa interdum in aliquo casu praeferuntur contemplationi. Reply Obj. 2: Those religious orders that are established for the purpose of military service aim more directly at shedding the enemy’s blood than at the shedding of their own, which latter is more properly competent to martyrs. Yet there is no reason why religious of this description should not acquire the merit of martyrdom in certain cases, and in this respect stand higher than other religious; even as in some cases the works of the active life take precedence of contemplation. Ad tertium dicendum quod arctitudo observantiarum non est id quod praecipue in religione commendatur, ut beatus Antonius dicit. Et Isaiae LVIII dicitur, nunquid hoc est ieiunium quod elegi, per diem affligere animam suam? Assumitur tamen in religione ut necessaria ad carnis macerationem, quae, si sine discretione fit, periculum deficiendi habet annexum, sicut beatus Antonius dicit. Et ideo non est potior religio ex hoc quod habet arctiores observantias, sed ex hoc quod ex maiori discretione sunt eius observantiae ordinatae ad finem religionis. Sicut ad continentiam efficacius ordinatur maceratio carnis per abstinentiam cibi et potus, quae pertinent ad famem et sitim, quam per subtractionem vestium, quae pertinent ad frigus et nuditatem; et quam per corporalem laborem. Reply Obj. 3: Strictness of observances, as the Blessed Antony remarks (Conferences of the Fathers; Coll. ii, 2), is not the chief object of commendation in a religious order; and it is written (Isa 58:5): Is this such a fast as I have chosen, for a man to afflict his soul for a day? Nevertheless it is adopted in religious life as being necessary for taming the flesh, which if done without discretion, is liable to make us fail altogether, as the Blessed Antony observes. Wherefore a religious order is not more excellent through having stricter observances, but because its observances are directed by greater discretion to the end of religion. Thus the taming of the flesh is more efficaciously directed to continence by means of abstinence in meat and drink, which pertain to hunger and thirst, than by the privation of clothing, which pertains to cold and nakedness, or by bodily labor. Articulus 7 Article 7 Utrum habere aliquid in communi diminuat perfectionem religionis Whether religious perfection is diminished by possessing something in common? Ad septimum sic proceditur. Videtur quod habere aliquid in communi diminuat perfectionem religionis. Dicit enim dominus, Matth. XIX, si vis perfectus esse, vade et vende omnia quae habes et da pauperibus, ex quo patet quod carere mundanis divitiis pertineat ad perfectionem vitae Christianae. Sed illi qui habent aliquid in communi, non carent mundanis divitiis. Ergo videtur quod non attingant omnino ad perfectionem Christianae vitae. Objection 1: It would seem that religious perfection is diminished by possessing something in common. For our Lord said (Matt 19:21): If thou wilt be perfect, go sell all thou hast and give to the poor. Hence it is clear that to lack worldly wealth belongs to the perfection of Christian life. Now those who possess something in common do not lack worldly wealth. Therefore it would seem that they do not quite reach to the perfection of Christian life. Praeterea, ad perfectionem consiliorum pertinet ut homo mundana sollicitudine careat, unde et apostolus, I ad Cor. VII, dans consilium de virginitate, dicit, volo vos sine sollicitudine esse. Sed ad sollicitudinem praesentis vitae pertinet quod aliqui reservent sibi aliquid in futurum, quam quidem sollicitudinem dominus discipulis prohibet, Matth. VI, dicens, nolite solliciti esse in crastinum. Ergo videtur quod habere aliquid in communi diminuat perfectionem Christianae vitae. Obj. 2: Further, the perfection of the counsels requires that one should be without worldly solicitude; wherefore the Apostle in giving the counsel of virginity said (1 Cor 7:32): I would have you to be without solicitude. Now it belongs to the solicitude of the present life that certain people keep something to themselves for the morrow; and this solicitude was forbidden His disciples by our Lord (Matt 6:34) saying: Be not . . . solicitous for tomorrow. Therefore it would seem that the perfection of Christian life is diminished by having something in common. Praeterea, divitiae communes quodammodo pertinent ad singulos qui sunt in communitate, unde Hieronymus, ad Heliodorum episcopum, dicit de quibusdam, sunt ditiores monachi quam fuerant saeculares; possident opes sub Christo paupere, quas sub locuplete Diabolo non habuerant; suspirat eos Ecclesia divites, quos tenuit mundus ante mendicos. Sed quod aliquis habeat divitias proprias derogat perfectioni religionis. Ergo etiam perfectioni religionis derogat quod aliquid in communi habeatur. Obj. 3: Further, possessions held in common belong in some way to each member of the community; wherefore Jerome (Ep. lx ad Heliod. Episc.) says in reference to certain people: They are richer in the monastery than they had been in the world; though serving the poor Christ they have wealth which they had not while serving the rich devil; the Church rejects them now that they are rich, who in the world were beggars. But it is derogatory to religious perfection that one should possess wealth of one’s own. Therefore it is also derogatory to religious perfection to possess anything in common. Praeterea, Gregorius narrat, in III Dialog., de quodam sanctissimo viro Isaac, quod, cum ei discipuli humiliter innuerent ut pro usu monasterii possessiones quae offerebantur acciperet, ille, sollicitus suae paupertatis custos, fortem sententiam tenebat, dicens, monachus qui in terra possessiones quaerit, monachus non est. Quod intelligitur de communibus possessionibus, quae pro communi usu monasterii ei offerebantur. Ergo videtur quod habere aliquid in communi tollat perfectionem religionis. Obj. 4: Further, Gregory (Dial. iii, 14) relates of a very holy man named Isaac, that when his disciples humbly signified that he should accept the possessions offered to him for the use of the monastery, he being solicitous for the safeguarding of his poverty, held firmly to his opinion, saying: A monk who seeks earthly possessions is no monk at all: and this refers to possessions held in common, and which were offered him for the common use of the monastery. Therefore it would seem destructive of religious perfection to possess anything in common. Praeterea, dominus, perfectionem religionis discipulis tradens, Matth. X, dicit nolite possidere aurum neque argentum, neque pecuniam in zonis vestris, non peram in via, per quod, ut Hieronymus dicit, arguit philosophos qui vulgo appellantur Bactroperitae, quod, contemptores saeculi et omnia pro nihilo ducentes, cellarium secum vehant. Ergo videtur quod reservare aliquid, sive in proprio sive in communi, diminuat perfectionem religionis. Obj. 5: Further, our Lord in prescribing religious perfection to His disciples, said (Matt 10:9, 10): Do not possess gold, nor silver, nor money in your purses, nor script for your journey. By these words, as Jerome says in his commentary, He reproves those philosophers who are commonly called Bactroperatae who as despising the world and valuing all things at naught carried their pantry about with them. Therefore it would seem derogatory to religious perfection that one should keep something whether for oneself or for the common use. Sed contra est quod prosper dicit, in libro de vita Contempl., et habetur XII, qu. I, satis ostenditur et propria debere propter perfectionem contemni, et sine impedimento perfectionis, Ecclesiae posse facultates, quae sunt profecto communia, possidere. On the contrary, Prosper says (De Vita Contempl. ix) and his words are quoted (XII, qu. 1, can. Expedit): It is sufficiently clear both that for the sake of perfection one should renounce having anything of one’s own, and that the possession of revenues, which are of course common property, is no hindrance to the perfection of the Church. Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut supra dictum est, perfectio non consistit essentialiter in paupertate, sed in Christi sequela, secundum illud Hieronymi super Matth., quia non sufficit omnia relinquere, addidit Petrus quod perfectum est, idest, secuti sumus te, paupertas autem est sicut instrumentum vel exercitium perveniendi ad perfectionem. Unde in collationibus patrum, abbas Moyses dicit, ieiunia, vigiliae, meditatio Scripturarum, nuditas, ac privatio omnium facultatum, non perfectio, sed perfectionis instrumenta sunt est autem privatio omnium facultatum, sive paupertas, perfectionis instrumentum, inquantum per remotionem divitiarum tolluntur quaedam caritatis impedimenta. Quae sunt praecipue tria. I answer that, As stated above (Q. 184, A. 3, ad 1; Q. 185, A. 6, ad 1), perfection consists, essentially, not in poverty, but in following Christ, according to the saying of Jerome (Super Matth. xix, 27): Since it is not enough to leave all, Peter adds that which is perfect, namely, ‘We have followed Thee,’ while poverty is like an instrument or exercise for the attainment of perfection. Hence in the Conferences of the Fathers (Coll. i, 7) the abbot Moses says: Fastings, watchings, meditating on the Scriptures, poverty, and privation of all one’s possessions are not perfection, but means of perfection. Now the privation of one’s possessions, or poverty, is a means of perfection, inasmuch as by doing away with riches we remove certain obstacles to charity; and these are chiefly three. Quorum primum est sollicitudo, quam secum divitiae afferunt. Unde dominus dicit, Matth. XIII, qui autem est seminatus in spinis, hic est qui verbum audit, et sollicitudo saeculi istius et fallacia divitiarum suffocat verbum secundum autem est divitiarum amor, qui ex divitiis possessis augetur. Unde Hieronymus dicit, super Matth., quod quia divitiae habitae difficile contemnuntur, non dixit dominus, Matth. XIX, impossibile est divitem intrare in regnum caelorum, sed, difficile. Tertium autem est inanis gloria vel elatio, quae ex divitiis nascitur, secundum illud Psalmi, qui confidunt in virtute sua, et in multitudine divitiarum suarum gloriantur. The first is the cares which riches bring with them; wherefore our Lord said (Matt 13:22): That which was sown among thorns, is he that heareth the word, and the care of this world, and the deceitfulness of riches, choketh up the word. The second is the love of riches, which increases with the possession of wealth; wherefore Jerome says (Super Matth. xix, 23) that since it is difficult to despise riches when we have them, our Lord did not say: ‘It is impossible for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven,’ but: ‘It is difficult.’ The third is vainglory or elation which results from riches, according to Ps. 48:7, They that trust in their own strength, and glory in the multitude of their riches. Horum ergo trium primum a divitiis separari non potest totaliter, sive sint magnae sive parvae, necesse est enim hominem aliqualiter sollicitari de acquirendis vel conservandis exterioribus rebus. Sed si res exteriores non quaerantur vel habeantur nisi in modica quantitate, quantum sufficiunt ad simplicem victum, talis sollicitudo non multum impedit hominem. Unde nec perfectioni repugnat Christianae vitae. Non enim omnis sollicitudo a domino interdicitur, sed superflua et nociva, unde super illud Matth. VI, nolite solliciti esse animae vestrae, quid manducetis, etc., dicit Augustinus, in libro de Serm. Dom. in monte, non hoc dicit, ut ista non procurent quantum necessitatis est, sed ut non ista intueantur, et propter ista faciant quidquid in Evangelii praedicatione facere iubentur. Sed abundans divitiarum possessio abundantiorem sollicitudinem ingerit, per quam animus hominis multum distrahitur et impeditur, ne totaliter feratur in Dei obsequium. Alia vero duo, scilicet amor divitiarum et elatio seu gloriatio de divitiis, non consequuntur nisi abundantes divitias. Accordingly the first of these three cannot be altogether separated from riches whether great or small. For man must needs take a certain amount of care in acquiring or keeping external things. But so long as external things are sought or possessed only in a small quantity, and as much as is required for a mere livelihood, such like care does not hinder one much; and consequently is not inconsistent with the perfection of Christian life. For our Lord did not forbid all care, but only such as is excessive and hurtful; wherefore Augustine, commenting on Matt. 6:25, Be not solicitous for your life, what you shall eat, says (De Serm. in Monte): In saying this He does not forbid them to procure these things insofar as they needed them, but to be intent on them, and for their sake to do whatever they are bidden to do in preaching the Gospel. Yet the possession of much wealth increases the weight of care, which is a great distraction to man’s mind and hinders him from giving himself wholly to God’s service. The other two, however, namely the love of riches and taking pride or glorying in riches, result only from an abundance of wealth. Differt tamen circa hoc utrum divitiae, abundantes vel moderatae, in proprio vel in communi habeantur. Nam sollicitudo quae circa proprias divitias adhibetur, pertinet ad amorem privatum, quo quis se temporaliter amat, sed sollicitudo quae adhibetur circa res communes, pertinet ad amorem caritatis, quae non quaerit quae sua sunt, sed communibus intendit. Et quia religio ad perfectionem caritatis ordinatur, quam perficit amor Dei usque ad contemptum sui; habere aliquid proprium repugnat perfectioni religionis. Sed sollicitudo quae adhibetur circa bona communia, pertinere potest ad caritatem, licet etiam per hoc impediri possit aliquis altior caritatis actus, puta contemplationis divinae aut instructionis proximorum. Ex quo patet quod habere superabundantes divitias in communi, sive in rebus mobilibus sive immobilibus, est impedimentum perfectionis, licet non totaliter excludat eam. Habere autem de rebus exterioribus in communi, sive mobilibus sive immobilibus, quantum sufficit ad simplicem victum, perfectionem religionis non impedit, si consideretur paupertas in comparatione ad communem finem religionum, qui est vacare divinis obsequiis. Si autem consideretur per comparationem ad speciales fines religionum, sic, praesupposito tali fine, paupertas maior vel minor est religioni accommoda, et tanto erit unaquaeque religio secundum paupertatem perfectior, quanto habet paupertatem magis proportionatam suo fini. Manifestum est enim quod ad exteriora et corporalia opera vitae activae indiget homo copia exteriorum rerum, ad contemplationem autem pauca requiruntur. Unde philosophus dicit, in X Ethic., quod ad actiones multis opus est, et quanto utique maiores sunt et meliores, pluribus, speculanti autem nullo talium ad operationem necessitas sed solis necessariis indiget; alia vero impedimenta sunt ad speculationem. Sic igitur patet quod religio quae ordinatur ad actiones corporales activae vitae, puta ad militandum vel ad hospitalitatem sectandam, imperfecta esset si communibus careret divitiis. Religiones autem quae ad contemplativam vitam ordinantur, tanto perfectiores sunt, quanto eorum paupertas minorem eis sollicitudinem temporalium ingerit. Tanto autem sollicitudo temporalium rerum magis impedit religionem, quanto sollicitudo spiritualium maior ad religionem requiritur. Nevertheless it makes a difference in this matter if riches, whether abundant or moderate, be possessed in private or in common. For the care that one takes of one’s own wealth, pertains to love of self, whereby a man loves himself in temporal matters; whereas the care that is given to things held in common pertains to the love of charity which seeketh not her own, but looks to the common good. And since religion is directed to the perfection of charity, and charity is perfected in the love of God extending to contempt of self, it is contrary to religious perfection to possess anything in private. But the care that is given to common goods may pertain to charity, although it may prove an obstacle to some higher act of charity, such as divine contemplation or the instructing of one’s neighbor. Hence it is evident that to have excessive riches in common, whether in movable or in immovable property, is an obstacle to perfection, though not absolutely incompatible with it; while it is not an obstacle to religious perfection to have enough external things, whether movables or immovables, as suffice for a livelihood, if we consider poverty in relation to the common end of religious orders, which is to devote oneself to the service of God. But if we consider poverty in relation to the special end of any religious order, then this end being presupposed, a greater or lesser degree of poverty is adapted to that religious order; and each religious order will be the more perfect in respect of poverty, according as it professes a poverty more adapted to its end. For it is evident that for the purpose of the outward and bodily works of the active life a man needs the assistance of outward things, whereas few are required for contemplation. Hence the Philosopher says (Ethic. x, 8) that many things are needed for action, and the more so, the greater and nobler the actions are. But the contemplative man requires no such things for the exercise of his act: he needs only the necessaries; other things are an obstacle to his contemplation. Accordingly it is clear that a religious order directed to the bodily actions of the active life, such as soldiering or the lodging of guests, would be imperfect if it lacked common riches; whereas those religious orders which are directed to the contemplative life are the more perfect, according as the poverty they profess burdens them with less care for temporal things. And the care of temporal things is so much a greater obstacle to religious life as the religious life requires a greater care of spiritual things. Manifestum est autem quod maiorem sollicitudinem spiritualium requirit religio quae est instituta ad contemplandum et contemplata aliis tradendum per doctrinam et praedicationem, quam illa quae est instituta ad contemplandum tantum. Unde talem religionem decet paupertas talis quae minimam sollicitudinem ingerat. Manifestum est autem quod minimam sollicitudinem ingerit conservare res usui hominum necessarias, tempore congruo procuratas. Et ideo tribus gradibus religionum supra positis triplex gradus paupertatis competit. Nam illis religionibus quae ordinantur ad corporales actiones activae vitae, competit habere abundantiam divitiarum communium. Illis autem religionibus quae sunt ordinatae ad contemplandum, magis competit habere possessiones moderatas, nisi simul oporteat tales religiosos, per se vel per alios, hospitalitatem tenere et pauperibus subvenire. Illis autem quae ordinantur ad contemplata aliis tradendum, competit vitam habere maxime ab exterioribus sollicitudinibus expeditam. Quod quidem fit dum modica quae sunt necessaria vitae, congruo tempore procurata, conservantur. Et hoc dominus, paupertatis institutor, docuit suo exemplo, habebat enim loculos, Iudae commissos, in quibus recondebantur ei oblata, ut habetur Ioan. XII. Now it is manifest that a religious order established for the purpose of contemplating and of giving to others the fruits of one’s contemplation by teaching and preaching, requires greater care of spiritual things than one that is established for contemplation only. Wherefore it becomes a religious order of this kind to embrace a poverty that burdens one with the least amount of care. Again it is clear that to keep what one has acquired at a fitting time for one’s necessary use involves the least burden of care. Wherefore a threefold degree of poverty corresponds to the three aforesaid degrees of religious life. For it is fitting that a religious order which is directed to the bodily actions of the active life should have an abundance of riches in common; that the common possession of a religious order directed to contemplation should be more moderate, unless the said religious be bound, either themselves or through others, to give hospitality or to assist the poor; and that those who aim at giving the fruits of their contemplation to others should have their life most exempt from external cares; this being accomplished by their laying up the necessaries of life procured at a fitting time. This, our Lord, the Founder of poverty, taught by His example. For He had a purse which He entrusted to Judas, and in which were kept the things that were offered to Him, as related in John 12:6. Nec obstat quod Hieronymus dicit, super Matth., si quis obiicere voluerit, quomodo Iudas in loculis pecuniam portabat? Respondebimus, quia rem pauperum in usus suos convertere nefas putavit, scilicet solvendo tributum, quia inter illos pauperes praecipui erant eius discipuli, in quorum necessitates pecunia loculorum Christi expendebatur. Dicitur enim Ioan. IV, quod discipuli abierant in civitatem ut cibos emerent, et Ioan. XIII dicitur quod discipuli putabant, quia loculos habebat Iudas, quod dixisset ei Iesus, eme quae opus sunt nobis ad diem festum; aut ut egenis aliquid daret. Ex quo patet quod conservare pecuniam, aut quascumque alias res communes, ad sustentationem religiosorum congregationis eiusdem, vel quorumcumque aliorum pauperum, est conforme perfectioni, quam Christus docuit suo exemplo. Sed et discipuli, post resurrectionem, a quibus omnis religio sumpsit originem, pretia praediorum conservabant, et distribuebant unicuique prout cuique opus erat. Nor should it be argued that Jerome (Super Matth. xvii, 26) says: If anyone object that Judas carried money in the purse, we answer that He deemed it unlawful to spend the property of the poor on His own uses, namely by paying the tax—because among those poor His disciples held a foremost place, and the money in Christ’s purse was spent chiefly on their needs. For it is stated (John 4:8) that His disciples were gone into the city to buy meats, and (John 13:29) that the disciples thought, because Judas had the purse, that Jesus had said to him: But those things which we have need of for the festival day, or that he should give something to the poor. From this it is evident that to keep money by, or any other common property for the support of religious of the same order, or of any other poor, is in accordance with the perfection which Christ taught by His example. Moreover, after the resurrection, the disciples from whom all religious orders took their origin kept the price of the lands, and distributed it according as each one had need (Acts 4:34, 35). Ad primum ergo dicendum quod, sicut dictum est, ex illo verbo domini non intelligitur quod ipsa paupertas sit perfectio, sed perfectionis instrumentum, et, sicut ostensum est, minimum inter tria principalia instrumenta perfectionis; nam votum continentiae praeeminet voto paupertatis, et votum obedientiae praefertur utrique. Quia vero instrumentum non propter se quaeritur, sed propter finem, non tanto aliquid fit melius quanto maius est instrumentum, sed quanto magis est fini proportionatum, sicut medicus non tanto magis sanat quanto maiorem dat medicinam, sed quanto medicina est magis proportionata morbo. Sic igitur non oportet quod religio tanto sit perfectior quanto maiorem habet paupertatem, sed quanto eius paupertas est magis proportionata communi fini et speciali. Et si daretur quod excessus paupertatis faceret religionem perfectiorem secundum hoc quod est pauperior, non tamen faceret eam perfectiorem simpliciter posset enim esse quod alia religio excederet in his quae pertinent ad continentiam et obedientiam, et sic esset simpliciter perfectior, quia quod in melioribus excedit, est simpliciter melius. Reply Obj. 1: As stated above (Q. 184, A. 3, ad 1), this saying of our Lord does not mean that poverty itself is perfection, but that it is the means of perfection. Indeed, as shown above (Q. 186, A. 8), it is the least of the three chief means of perfection; since the vow of continence excels the vow of poverty, and the vow of obedience excels them both. Since, however, the means are sought not for their own sake, but for the sake of the end, a thing is better, not for being a greater instrument, but for being more adapted to the end. Thus a physician does not heal the more the more medicine he gives, but the more the medicine is adapted to the disease. Accordingly it does not follow that a religious order is the more perfect, according as the poverty it professes is more perfect, but according as its poverty is more adapted to the end both common and special. Granted even that the religious order which exceeds others in poverty be more perfect insofar as it is poorer, this would not make it more perfect simply. For possibly some other religious order might surpass it in matters relating to continence, or obedience, and thus be more perfect simply, since to excel in better things is to be better simply. Ad secundum dicendum quod per hoc quod dominus dicit, nolite solliciti esse in crastinum, non intelligitur quod nihil reservetur in futurum. Hoc enim periculosum esse beatus Antonius, in collationibus patrum, ostendit, dicens quod privationem omnium facultatum ita sectantes ut ex ipsis nec unius quidem diei victum sibimet, unumve denarium superesse paterentur, et alia huiusmodi facientes, ita vidimus repente deceptos ut arreptum opus non potuerint congruo exitu terminare. Et ut Augustinus dicit, in libro de operibus Monach., si hoc verbum domini, nolite solliciti esse in crastinum, ita intelligatur ut nihil in crastinum reponatur, non poterunt ista servare qui se per multos dies a conspectu hominum separatos includunt, viventes in magna intentione orationum. Et postea subdit, an forte, quo sunt sanctiores, eo sunt volucribus dissimiliores? Et postea subdit, si enim urgeantur ex Evangelio ut nihil reponant in crastinum, respondent, cur ergo ipse dominus loculos habuit, ubi pecuniam collectam reponeret? Cur tanto ante, fame imminente, frumenta sanctis patribus missa sunt? Cur apostoli indigentiae sanctorum necessaria procurarunt? Reply Obj. 2: Our Lord’s words (Matt 6:34), Be not solicitous for tomorrow, do not mean that we are to keep nothing for the morrow; for the Blessed Antony shows the danger of so doing, in the Conferences of the Fathers (Coll. ii, 2), where he says: It has been our experience that those who have attempted to practice the privation of all means of livelihood, so as not to have the wherewithal to procure themselves food for one day, have been deceived so unawares that they were unable to finish properly the work they had undertaken. And, as Augustine says (De Oper. Monach. xxiii), if this saying of our Lord, ‘Be not solicitous for tomorrow,’ means that we are to lay nothing by for the morrow, those who shut themselves up for many days from the sight of men, and apply their whole mind to a life of prayer, will be unable to provide themselves with these things. Again he adds afterwards: Are we to suppose that the more holy they are, the less do they resemble the birds? And further on (De Oper. Monach. xxiv): For if it be argued from the Gospel that they should lay nothing by, they answer rightly: Why then did our Lord have a purse, wherein He kept the money that was collected? Why, in days long gone by, when famine was imminent, was grain sent to the holy fathers? Why did the apostles thus provide for the needs of the saints? Quod ergo dicitur, nolite solliciti esse in crastinum, secundum Hieronymum, sic exponitur, sufficit nobis praesentis temporis cogitatio, futura, quae incerta sunt, Deo relinquamus. Secundum Chrysostomum, sic, sufficit labor quem pateris propter necessaria, noli de superfluis laborare. Secundum Augustinum, sic, cum aliquid boni operamur, non temporalia, quae significantur per crastinum, sed aeterna cogitemus. Accordingly the saying: Be not solicitous for tomorrow, according to Jerome (Super Matth.) is to be rendered thus: It is enough that we think of the present; the future being uncertain, let us leave it to God: according to Chrysostom, It is enough to endure the toil for necessary things, labor not in excess for unnecessary things: according to Augustine (De Serm. Dom. in Monte ii, 17): When we do any good action, we should bear in mind not temporal things which are denoted by the morrow, but eternal things. Ad tertium dicendum quod verbum Hieronymi habet locum ubi sunt superabundantes divitiae quae habentur quasi propriae, vel per quarum abusum etiam singuli de communitate superbiunt et lasciviunt. Non autem habet locum in divitiis moderatis communiter conservatis ad solam sustentationem vitae, qua singuli indigent, eadem enim est ratio quod singuli utantur his quae pertinent ad necessaria vitae, et quod communiter conserventur. Reply Obj. 3: The saying of Jerome applies where there are excessive riches, possessed in private as it were, or by the abuse of which even the individual members of a community wax proud and wanton. But they do not apply to moderate wealth, set by for the common use, merely as a means of livelihood of which each one stands in need. For it amounts to the same that each one makes use of things pertaining to the necessaries of life, and that these things be set by for the common use. Ad quartum dicendum quod Isaac possessiones renuebat recipere, quia timebat ne per hoc ad superfluas divitias veniretur, per quarum abusum impediretur religionis perfectio. Unde Gregorius ibidem subdit, sic metuebat paupertatem suae securitatis perdere, sicut avari divites solent perituras divitias custodire. Non autem legitur quod renuerit recipere aliqua necessaria ad vitae sustentationem communiter conservanda. Reply Obj. 4: Isaac refused to accept the offer of possessions, because he feared lest this should lead him to have excessive wealth, the abuse of which would be an obstacle to religious perfection. Hence Gregory adds (Dial. iii, 14): He was as afraid of forfeiting the security of his poverty, as the rich miser is careful of his perishable wealth. It is not, however, related that he refused to accept such things as are commonly necessary for the upkeep of life. Ad quintum dicendum quod philosophus, in I Polit., dicit panem et vinum et alia huiusmodi esse divitias naturales, pecunias vero divitias artificiales. Et inde est quod quidam philosophi nolebant uti pecunia, sed aliis rebus, quasi secundum naturam viventes. Et ideo Hieronymus, ibidem, per sententiam domini, qui similiter utrumque interdicit, ostendit quod in idem redit habere pecuniam, et alias res necessarias vitae. Et tamen, licet dominus huiusmodi non portari in via ab his qui ad praedicandum mittebantur, ordinaverit, non tamen ea in communi conservari prohibuit. Qualiter tamen illa verba domini sint intelligenda, supra ostensum est. Reply Obj. 5: The Philosopher says (Polit. i, 5, 6) that bread, wine, and the like are natural riches, while money is artificial riches. Hence it is that certain philosophers declined to make use of money, and employed other things, living according to nature. Wherefore Jerome shows by the words of our Lord, Who equally forbade both, that it comes to the same to have money and to possess other things necessary for life. And though our Lord commanded those who were sent to preach not to carry these things on the way, He did not forbid them to be possessed in common. How these words of our Lord should be understood has been shown above (Q. 185, A. 6 ad 2; I-II, Q. 108, A. 2, ad 3). Articulus 8 Article 8 Utrum perfectior sit religio in societate viventium quam agentium solitariam vitam Whether the religious life of those who live in community is more perfect than that of those who lead a solitary life? Ad octavum sic proceditur. Videtur quod perfectior sit religio in societate viventium quam agentium solitariam vitam. Dicitur enim Eccle. IV, melius est duos esse quam unum, habent enim emolumentum societatis suae. Ergo videtur perfectior esse religio in societate viventium. Objection 1: It would seem that the religious life of those who live in community is more perfect than that of those who lead a solitary life. For it is written (Eccl 4:9): It is better . . . that two should be together, than one; for they have the advantage of their society. Therefore the religious life of those who live in community would seem to be more perfect. Praeterea, Matth. XVIII dicitur, ubi fuerint duo vel tres congregati in nomine meo, ibi sum ego in medio eorum. Sed nihil potest esse melius quam Christi societas. Ergo videtur quod vivere in congregatione sit melius quam ducere solitariam vitam. Obj. 2: Further, it is written (Matt 18:20): Where there are two or three gathered together in My name, there am I in the midst of them. But nothing can be better than the fellowship of Christ. Therefore it would seem better to live in community than in solitude. Praeterea, inter alia religionis vota, votum obedientiae excellentius est, et humilitas est maxime Deo accepta. Sed obedientia et humilitas magis observatur in communi conversatione quam in solitudine. Dicit enim Hieronymus, in epistola ad rusticum monachum, in solitudine cito subrepit superbia, dormit quando voluerit, facit quod voluerit. E contrario autem ipse docet eum qui in societate vivit, dicens, non facias quod vis, comedas quod iuberis, habeas quantum acceperis, subiiciaris cui non vis, servias fratribus, praepositum monasterii timeas ut Deum, diligas ut parentem. Ergo videtur quod religio viventium in societate sit perfectior ea quae solitariam vitam agit. Obj. 3: Further, the vow of obedience is more excellent than the other religious vows; and humility is most acceptable to God. Now obedience and humility are better observed in company than in solitude; for Jerome says (Ep. cxxv ad Rustic. Monach.): In solitude pride quickly takes man unawares, he sleeps as much as he will, he does what he likes; whereas when instructing one who lives in community, he says: You may not do what you will, you must eat what you are bidden to eat, you may possess so much as you receive, you must obey one you prefer not to obey, you must be a servant to your brethren, you must fear the superior of the monastery as God, love him as a father. Therefore it would seem that the religious life of those who live in community is more perfect than that of those who lead a solitary life. Praeterea, dominus dicit, Luc. XI, nemo accendit lucernam et in abscondito ponit, neque sub modio. Sed illi qui solitariam vitam agunt, videntur esse in abscondito positi, nihil utilitatis hominibus afferentes. Ergo videtur quod eorum religio non sit perfectior. Obj. 4: Further, our Lord said (Luke 11:33): No man lighteth a candle and putteth it in a hidden place, nor under a bushel. Now those who lead a solitary life are seemingly in a hidden place, and to be doing no good to any man. Therefore it would seem that their religious life is not more perfect. Praeterea, id quod est contra naturam hominis, non videtur ad perfectionem virtutis pertinere. Sed homo naturaliter est animal sociale, ut philosophus dicit, in I Polit. Ergo videtur quod agere solitariam vitam non sit perfectius quam agere vitam socialem. Obj. 5: Further, that which is in accord with man’s nature is apparently more pertinent to the perfection of virtue. But man is naturally a social animal, as the Philosopher says (Polit. i, 1). Therefore it would seem that to lead a solitary life is not more perfect than to lead a community life. Sed contra est quod Augustinus, in libro de operibus Monach., illos sanctiores esse dicit qui, a conspectu hominum separati, nulli ad se praebent accessum, viventes in magna intentione orationum. On the contrary, Augustine says (De Oper. Monach. xxiii) that those are holier who keep themselves aloof from the approach of all, and give their whole mind to a life of prayer. Respondeo dicendum quod solitudo, sicut et paupertas, non est ipsa essentia perfectionis, sed perfectionis instrumentum, unde in collationibus patrum, dicit abbas Moyses quod pro puritate cordis, solitudo sectanda est, sicut et ieiunia et alia huiusmodi. Manifestum est autem quod solitudo non est instrumentum congruum actioni, sed contemplationi, secundum illud Osee II, ducam eam in solitudinem, et loquar ad cor eius. Unde non congruit religionibus quae sunt ordinatae ad opera vitae activae, sive corporalia sive spiritualia, nisi forte ad tempus, exemplo Christi qui, ut dicitur Luc. VI, exiit in montem orare et erat pernoctans in oratione Dei. Competit autem religionibus quae sunt ad contemplationem ordinatae. I answer that, Solitude, like poverty, is not the essence of perfection, but a means thereto. Hence in the Conferences of the Fathers (Coll. i, 7) the Abbot Moses says that solitude, even as fasting and other like things, is a sure means of acquiring purity of heart. Now it is evident that solitude is a means adapted not to action but to contemplation, according to Osee 2:14, I . . . will lead her into solitude ; and I will speak to her heart. Wherefore it is not suitable to those religious orders that are directed to the works whether corporal or spiritual of the active life; except perhaps for a time, after the example of Christ, Who as Luke relates (6:12), went out into a mountain to pray; and He passed the whole night in the prayer of God. On the other hand, it is suitable to those religious orders that are directed to contemplation. Considerandum tamen est quod id quod est solitarium, debet esse sibi per se sufficiens. Hoc autem est cui nihil deest, quod pertinet ad rationem perfecti. Et ideo solitudo competit contemplanti qui iam ad perfectum pervenit. Quod quidem contingit dupliciter. Uno modo, ex solo divino munere, sicut patet de Ioanne Baptista, qui fuit repletus spiritu sancto adhuc ex utero matris suae; unde et cum adhuc puer esset, erat in desertis, ut dicitur Luc. I. Alio modo, per exercitium virtuosi actus, secundum illud Heb. V, perfectorum est solidus cibus, eorum qui pro consuetudine exercitatos habent sensus ad discretionem boni et mali. It must, however, be observed that what is solitary should be self-sufficing by itself. Now such a thing is one that lacks nothing, and this belongs to the idea of a perfect thing. Wherefore solitude befits the contemplative who has already attained to perfection. This happens in two ways: in one way by the gift only of God, as in the case of John the Baptist, who was filled with the Holy Spirit even from his mother’s womb (Luke 1:11), so that he was in the desert even as a boy; in another way by the practice of virtuous action, according to Heb. 5:14: Strong meat is for the perfect; for them who by custom have their senses exercised to the discerning of good and evil. Ad exercitium autem huiusmodi iuvatur homo ex aliorum societate, dupliciter. Uno modo, quantum ad intellectum, ut instruatur in his quae sunt contemplanda, unde Hieronymus dicit, ad rusticum monachum, mihi placet ut habeas sacrum contubernium, nec ipse te doceas. Secundo, quantum ad affectum, ut scilicet noxiae affectiones hominis reprimantur exemplo et correctione aliorum, quia ut dicit Gregorius, XXX Moral., super illud, cui dedi in solitudine domum, quid prodest solitudo corporis, si solitudo defuerit cordis? Et ideo vita socialis necessaria est ad exercitium perfectionis, solitudo autem competit iam perfectis. Unde Hieronymus dicit, ad rusticum monachum, solitariam vitam comprehendimus minime, quam semper laudabimus, sed de ludo monasteriorum huiusmodi volumus egredi milites quos rudimenta non terreant, qui specimen conversationis suae multo tempore dederint. Now man is assisted in this practice by the fellowship of others in two ways. First, as regards his intellect, to the effect of his being instructed in that which he has to contemplate; wherefore Jerome says (ad Rustic. Monach., Ep. cxxv): It pleases me that you have the fellowship of holy men, and teach not yourself. Second, as regards the affections, seeing that man’s noisome affections are restrained by the example and reproof which he receives from others; for as Gregory says (Moral. xxx, 23), commenting on the words, To whom I have given a house in the wilderness (Job 39:6), What profits solitude of the body, if solitude of the heart be lacking? Hence a social life is necessary for the practice of perfection. Now solitude befits those who are already perfect; wherefore Jerome says (ad Rustic. Monach., Ep. cxxv): Far from condemning the solitary life, we have often commended it. But we wish the soldiers who pass from the monastic school to be such as not to be deterred by the hard noviciate of the desert, and such as have given proof of their conduct for a considerable time.