Unde sicut virtus moralis definitur per hoc quod est secundum rationem rectam, ut patet in II Ethic., ita etiam attingere Deum constituit rationem virtutis, sicut etiam supra dictum est de fide et spe. Unde, cum caritas attingit Deum, quia coniungit nos Deo, ut patet per auctoritatem Augustini inductam; consequens est caritatem esse virtutem. Consequently just as moral virtue is defined as being in accord with right reason, as stated in Ethic. ii, 6, so too, the nature of virtue consists in attaining God, as also stated above with regard to faith, (Q. 4, A. 5) and hope (Q. 17, A. 1). Wherefore, it follows that charity is a virtue, for, since charity attains God, it unites us to God, as evidenced by the authority of Augustine quoted above. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod philosophus in VIII Ethic. non negat amicitiam esse virtutem, sed dicit quod est virtus vel cum virtute. Posset enim dici quod est virtus moralis circa operationes quae sunt ad alium, sub alia tamen ratione quam iustitia. Nam iustitia est circa operationes quae sunt ad alium sub ratione debiti legalis, amicitia autem sub ratione cuiusdam debiti amicabilis et moralis, vel magis sub ratione beneficii gratuiti, ut patet per Philosophum, in VIII Ethic. Potest tamen dici quod non est virtus per se ab aliis distincta. Non enim habet rationem laudabilis et honesti nisi ex obiecto, secundum scilicet quod fundatur super honestate virtutum, quod patet ex hoc quod non quaelibet amicitia habet rationem laudabilis et honesti, sicut patet in amicitia delectabilis et utilis. Unde amicitia virtuosa magis est aliquid consequens ad virtutes quam sit virtus. Nec est simile de caritate, quae non fundatur principaliter super virtute humana, sed super bonitate divina. Reply Obj. 1: The Philosopher (Ethic. viii) does not deny that friendship is a virtue, but affirms that it is either a virtue or with a virtue. For we might say that it is a moral virtue about works done in respect of another person, but under a different aspect from justice. For justice is about works done in respect of another person, under the aspect of the legal due, whereas friendship considers the aspect of a friendly and moral duty, or rather that of a gratuitous favor, as the Philosopher explains (Ethic. viii, 13). Nevertheless it may be admitted that it is not a virtue distinct of itself from the other virtues. For its praiseworthiness and virtuousness are derived merely from its object, insofar, to wit, as it is based on the moral goodness of the virtues. This is evident from the fact that not every friendship is praiseworthy and virtuous, as in the case of friendship based on pleasure or utility. Wherefore friendship for the virtuous is something consequent to virtue rather than a virtue. Moreover there is no comparison with charity since it is not founded principally on the virtue of a man, but on the goodness of God. Ad secundum dicendum quod eiusdem virtutis est diligere aliquem et gaudere de illo, nam gaudium amorem consequitur, ut supra habitum est, cum de passionibus ageretur. Et ideo magis ponitur virtus amor quam gaudium, quod est amoris effectus. Ultimum autem quod ponitur in ratione virtutis non importat ordinem effectus, sed magis ordinem superexcessus cuiusdam, sicut centum librae excedunt sexaginta. Reply Obj. 2: It belongs to the same virtue to love a man and to rejoice about him, since joy results from love, as stated above (I-II, Q. 25, A. 2) in the treatise on the passions: wherefore love is reckoned a virtue, rather than joy, which is an effect of love. And when virtue is described as being something ultimate, we mean that it is last, not in the order of effect, but in the order of excess, just as one hundred pounds exceed sixty. Ad tertium dicendum quod omne accidens secundum suum esse est inferius substantia, quia substantia est ens per se, accidens autem in alio. Sed secundum rationem suae speciei, accidens quidem quod causatur ex principiis subiecti est indignius subiecto, sicut effectus causa. Accidens autem quod causatur ex participatione alicuius superioris naturae est dignius subiecto, inquantum est similitudo superioris naturae, sicut lux diaphano. Et hoc modo caritas est dignior anima, inquantum est participatio quaedam spiritus sancti. Reply Obj. 3: Every accident is inferior to substance if we consider its being, since substance has being in itself, while an accident has its being in another: but considered as to its species, an accident which results from the principles of its subject is inferior to its subject, even as an effect is inferior to its cause; whereas an accident that results from a participation of some higher nature is superior to its subject, insofar as it is a likeness of that higher nature, even as light is superior to the diaphanous body. In this way charity is superior to the soul, inasmuch as it is a participation of the Holy Spirit. Articulus 4 Article 4 Utrum caritas sit virtus specialis Whether charity is a special virtue? Ad quartum sic proceditur. Videtur quod caritas non sit virtus specialis. Dicit enim Hieronymus, ut breviter omnem virtutis definitionem complectar, virtus est caritas, qua diligitur Deus et proximus. Et Augustinus dicit, in libro de moribus Eccles., quod virtus est ordo amoris. Sed nulla virtus specialis ponitur in definitione virtutis communis. Ergo caritas non est specialis virtus. Objection 1: It would seem that charity is not a special virtue. For Jerome says: Let me briefly define all virtue as the charity whereby we love God: and Augustine says (De Moribus Eccl. xv) that virtue is the order of love. Now no special virtue is included in the definition of virtue in general. Therefore charity is not a special virtue. Praeterea, illud quod se extendit ad opera omnium virtutum non potest esse specialis virtus. Sed caritas se extendit ad opera omnium virtutum, secundum illud I ad Cor. XIII, caritas patiens est, benigna est, et cetera. Extendit etiam se ad omnia opera humana, secundum illud I ad Cor. ult., omnia opera vestra in caritate fiant. Ergo caritas non est specialis virtus. Obj. 2: Further, that which extends to all works of virtue, cannot be a special virtue. But charity extends to all works of virtue, according to 1 Cor. 13:4: Charity is patient, is kind, etc.; indeed it extends to all human actions, according to 1 Cor. 16:14: Let all your things be done in charity. Therefore charity is not a special virtue. Praeterea, praecepta legis respondent actibus virtutum. Sed Augustinus, in libro de Perfect. Hum. Iust., dicit quod generalis iussio est, diliges; et generalis prohibitio, non concupisces. Ergo caritas est generalis virtus. Obj. 3: Further, the precepts of the Law refer to acts of virtue. Now Augustine says (De Perfect. Human. Justit. v) that, Thou shalt love is a general commandment, and Thou shalt not covet, a general prohibition. Therefore charity is a general virtue. Sed contra, nullum generale connumeratur speciali. Sed caritas connumeratur specialibus virtutibus, scilicet fidei et spei, secundum illud I ad Cor. XIII, nunc autem manent fides, spes, caritas, tria haec. Ergo caritas est virtus specialis. On the contrary, Nothing general is enumerated together with what is special. But charity is enumerated together with special virtues, viz. hope and faith, according to 1 Cor. 13:13: And now there remain faith, hope, charity, these three. Therefore charity is a special virtue. Respondeo dicendum quod actus et habitus specificantur per obiecta, ut ex supradictis patet. Proprium autem obiectum amoris est bonum, ut supra habitum est. Et ideo ubi est specialis ratio boni, ibi est specialis ratio amoris. Bonum autem divinum, inquantum est beatitudinis obiectum, habet specialem rationem boni. Et ideo amor caritatis, qui est amor huius boni, est specialis amor. Unde et caritas est specialis virtus. I answer that, Acts and habits are specified by their objects, as shown above (I-II, Q. 18, A. 2; I-II, Q. 54, A. 2). Now the proper object of love is the good, as stated above (I-II, Q. 27, A. 1), so that wherever there is a special aspect of good, there is a special kind of love. But the Divine good, inasmuch as it is the object of happiness, has a special aspect of good, wherefore the love of charity, which is the love of that good, is a special kind of love. Therefore charity is a special virtue. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod caritas ponitur in definitione omnis virtutis, non quia sit essentialiter omnis virtus, sed quia ab ea dependent aliqualiter omnes virtutes, ut infra dicetur. Sicut etiam prudentia ponitur in definitione virtutum moralium, ut patet in II et VI Ethic., eo quod virtutes morales dependent a prudentia. Reply Obj. 1: Charity is included in the definition of every virtue, not as being essentially every virtue, but because every virtue depends on it in a way, as we shall state further on (AA. 7, 8). In this way prudence is included in the definition of the moral virtues, as explained in Ethic. ii, vi, from the fact that they depend on prudence. Ad secundum dicendum quod virtus vel ars ad quam pertinet finis ultimus, imperat virtutibus vel artibus ad quas pertinent alii fines secundarii, sicut militaris imperat equestri, ut dicitur in I Ethic. Et ideo, quia caritas habet pro obiecto ultimum finem humanae vitae, scilicet beatitudinem aeternam, ideo extendit se ad actus totius humanae vitae per modum imperii, non quasi immediate eliciens omnes actus virtutum. Reply Obj. 2: The virtue or art which is concerned about the last end, commands the virtues or arts which are concerned about other ends which are secondary, thus the military art commands the art of horse-riding (Ethic. i). Accordingly since charity has for its object the last end of human life, viz. everlasting happiness, it follows that it extends to the acts of a man’s whole life, by commanding them, not by eliciting immediately all acts of virtue. Ad tertium dicendum quod praeceptum de diligendo dicitur esse iussio generalis, quia ad hoc reducuntur omnia alia praecepta sicut ad finem, secundum illud I ad Tim. I, finis praecepti caritas est. Reply Obj. 3: The precept of love is said to be a general command, because all other precepts are reduced thereto as to their end, according to 1 Tim. 1:5: The end of the commandment is charity. Articulus 5 Article 5 Utrum caritas sit una virtus Whether charity is one virtue? Ad quintum sic proceditur. Videtur quod caritas non sit una virtus. Habitus enim distinguuntur secundum obiecta. Sed duo sunt obiecta caritatis, Deus et proximus, quae in infinitum ab invicem distant. Ergo caritas non est una virtus. Objection 1: It would seem that charity is not one virtue. For habits are distinct according to their objects. Now there are two objects of charity—God and our neighbor—which are infinitely distant from one another. Therefore charity is not one virtue. Praeterea, diversae rationes obiecti diversificant habitum, etiam si obiectum sit realiter idem, ut ex supradictis patet. Sed multae sunt rationes diligendi Deum, quia ex singulis beneficiis eius perceptis debitores sumus dilectionis ipsius. Ergo caritas non est una virtus. Obj. 2: Further, different aspects of the object diversify a habit, even though that object be one in reality, as shown above (Q. 17, A. 6; I-II, Q. 54, A. 2, ad 1). Now there are many aspects under which God is an object of love, because we are debtors to His love by reason of each one of His favors. Therefore charity is not one virtue. Praeterea, sub caritate includitur amicitia ad proximum. Sed Philosophus, in VIII Ethic., ponit diversas amicitiae species. Ergo caritas non est una virtus, sed multiplicatur in diversas species. Obj. 3: Further, charity comprises friendship for our neighbor. But the Philosopher reckons several species of friendship (Ethic. viii, 3, 11, 12). Therefore charity is not one virtue, but is divided into a number of various species. Sed contra, sicut obiectum fidei est Deus, ita et caritatis. Sed fides est una virtus, propter unitatem divinae veritatis, secundum illud ad Ephes. IV, una fides. Ergo etiam caritas est una virtus, propter unitatem divinae bonitatis. On the contrary, Just as God is the object of faith, so is He the object of charity. Now faith is one virtue by reason of the unity of the Divine truth, according to Eph. 4:5: One faith. Therefore charity also is one virtue by reason of the unity of the Divine goodness. Respondeo dicendum quod caritas, sicut dictum est, est quaedam amicitia hominis ad Deum. Diversae autem amicitiarum species accipiuntur quidem uno modo secundum diversitatem finis, et secundum hoc dicuntur tres species amicitiae, scilicet amicitia utilis, delectabilis et honesti. Alio modo, secundum diversitatem communicationum in quibus amicitiae fundantur, sicut alia species amicitiae est consanguineorum, et alia concivium aut peregrinantium, quarum una fundatur super communicatione naturali, aliae super communicatione civili vel peregrinationis; ut patet per philosophum, in VIII Ethic. I answer that, Charity, as stated above (A. 1) is a kind of friendship of man for God. Now the different species of friendship are differentiated, first of all, in respect of a diversity of end, and in this way there are three species of friendship, namely friendship for the useful, for the delightful, and for the virtuous; second, in respect of the different kinds of communion on which friendships are based; thus there is one species of friendship between kinsmen, and another between fellow citizens or fellow travellers, the former being based on natural communion, the latter on civil communion or on the comradeship of the road, as the Philosopher explains (Ethic. viii, 12). Neutro autem istorum modorum caritas potest dividi in plura. Nam caritatis finis est unus, scilicet divina bonitas. Est etiam et una communicatio beatitudinis aeternae, super quam haec amicitia fundatur. Unde relinquitur quod caritas est simpliciter una virtus, non distincta in plures species. Now charity cannot be differentiated in either of these ways: for its end is one, namely, the goodness of God; and the fellowship of everlasting happiness, on which this friendship is based, is also one. Hence it follows that charity is simply one virtue, and not divided into several species. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod ratio illa directe procederet si Deus et proximus ex aequo essent caritatis obiecta. Hoc autem non est verum, sed Deus est principale obiectum caritatis, proximus autem ex caritate diligitur propter Deum. Reply Obj. 1: This argument would hold, if God and our neighbor were equally objects of charity. But this is not true: for God is the principal object of charity, while our neighbor is loved out of charity for God’s sake. Ad secundum dicendum quod caritate diligitur Deus propter seipsum. Unde una sola ratio diligendi principaliter attenditur a caritate, scilicet divina bonitas, quae est eius substantia, secundum illud Psalm., confitemini domino, quoniam bonus. Aliae autem rationes ad diligendum inducentes, vel debitum dilectionis facientes, sunt secundariae et consequentes ex prima. Reply Obj. 2: God is loved by charity for His own sake: wherefore charity regards principally but one aspect of lovableness, namely God’s goodness, which is His substance, according to Ps. 105:1: Give glory to the Lord for He is good. Other reasons that inspire us with love for Him, or which make it our duty to love Him, are secondary and result from the first. Ad tertium dicendum quod amicitiae humanae, de qua philosophus loquitur, est diversus finis et diversa communicatio. Quod in caritate locum non habet, ut dictum est. Et ideo non est similis ratio. Reply Obj. 3: Human friendship of which the Philosopher treats has various ends and various forms of fellowship. This does not apply to charity, as stated above: wherefore the comparison fails. Articulus 6 Article 6 Utrum caritas sit excellentissima virtutum Whether charity is the most excellent of the virtues? Ad sextum sic proceditur. Videtur quod caritas non sit excellentissima virtutum. Altioris enim potentiae altior est virtus, sicut et altior operatio. Sed intellectus est altior voluntate, et dirigit ipsam. Ergo fides, quae est in intellectu, est excellentior caritate, quae est in voluntate. Objection 1: It would seem that charity is not the most excellent of the virtues. Because the higher power has the higher virtue even as it has a higher operation. Now the intellect is higher than the will, since it directs the will. Therefore, faith, which is in the intellect, is more excellent than charity which is in the will. Praeterea, illud per quod aliud operatur, videtur eo esse inferius, sicut minister, per quem dominus aliquid operatur, est inferior domino. Sed fides per dilectionem operatur, ut habetur ad Gal. V. Ergo fides est excellentior caritate. Obj. 2: Further, the thing by which another works seems the less excellent of the two, even as a servant, by whom his master works, is beneath his master. Now faith . . . worketh by charity, according to Gal. 5:6. Therefore faith is more excellent than charity. Praeterea, illud quod se habet ex additione ad aliud, videtur esse perfectius. Sed spes videtur se habere ex additione ad caritatem, nam caritatis obiectum est bonum, spei autem obiectum est bonum arduum. Ergo spes est excellentior caritate. Obj. 3: Further, that which is by way of addition to another seems to be the more perfect of the two. Now hope seems to be something additional to charity: for the object of charity is good, whereas the object of hope is an arduous good. Therefore hope is more excellent than charity. Sed contra est quod dicitur I ad Cor. XIII, maior horum est caritas. On the contrary, It is written (1 Cor 13:13): The greater of these is charity. Respondeo dicendum quod, cum bonum in humanis actibus attendatur secundum quod regulantur debita regula, necesse est quod virtus humana, quae est principium bonorum actuum, consistat in attingendo humanorum actuum regulam. Est autem duplex regula humanorum actuum, ut supra dictum est, scilicet ratio humana et Deus, sed Deus est prima regula, a qua etiam humana ratio regulanda est. Et ideo virtutes theologicae, quae consistunt in attingendo illam regulam primam, eo quod earum obiectum est Deus, excellentiores sunt virtutibus moralibus vel intellectualibus, quae consistunt in attingendo rationem humanam. Propter quod oportet quod etiam inter ipsas virtutes theologicas illa sit potior quae magis Deum attingit. I answer that, Since good, in human acts, depends on their being regulated by the due rule, it must needs be that human virtue, which is a principle of good acts, consists in attaining the rule of human acts. Now the rule of human acts is twofold, as stated above (A. 3), namely, human reason and God: yet God is the first rule, whereby, even human reason must be regulated. Consequently the theological virtues, which consist in attaining this first rule, since their object is God, are more excellent than the moral, or the intellectual virtues, which consist in attaining human reason: and it follows that among the theological virtues themselves, the first place belongs to that which attains God most. Semper autem id quod est per se magis est eo quod est per aliud. Fides autem et spes attingunt quidem Deum secundum quod ex ipso provenit nobis vel cognitio veri vel adeptio boni, sed caritas attingit ipsum Deum ut in ipso sistat, non ut ex eo aliquid nobis proveniat. Et ideo caritas est excellentior fide et spe; et per consequens omnibus aliis virtutibus. Sicut etiam prudentia, quae attingit rationem secundum se, est excellentior quam aliae virtutes morales, quae attingunt rationem secundum quod ex ea medium constituitur in operationibus vel passionibus humanis. Now that which is of itself always ranks before that which is by another. But faith and hope attain God indeed insofar as we derive from Him the knowledge of truth or the acquisition of good, whereas charity attains God Himself that it may rest in Him, but not that something may accrue to us from Him. Hence charity is more excellent than faith or hope, and, consequently, than all the other virtues, just as prudence, which by itself attains reason, is more excellent than the other moral virtues, which attain reason insofar as it appoints the mean in human operations or passions. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod operatio intellectus completur secundum quod intellectum est in intelligente, et ideo nobilitas operationis intellectualis attenditur secundum mensuram intellectus. Operatio autem voluntatis, et cuiuslibet virtutis appetitivae, perficitur in inclinatione appetentis ad rem sicut ad terminum. Ideo dignitas operationis appetitivae attenditur secundum rem quae est obiectum operationis. Ea autem quae sunt infra animam nobiliori modo sunt in anima quam in seipsis, quia unumquodque est in aliquo per modum eius in quo est, ut habetur in libro de Causis, quae vero sunt supra animam nobiliori modo sunt in seipsis quam sint in anima. Et ideo eorum quae sunt infra nos nobilior est cognitio quam dilectio, propter quod Philosophus, in X Ethic., praetulit virtutes intellectuales moralibus. Sed eorum quae sunt supra nos, et praecipue dilectio Dei, cognitioni praefertur. Et ideo caritas est excellentior fide. Reply Obj. 1: The operation of the intellect is completed by the thing understood being in the intellectual subject, so that the excellence of the intellectual operation is assessed according to the measure of the intellect. On the other hand, the operation of the will and of every appetitive power is completed in the tendency of the appetite towards a thing as its term, wherefore the excellence of the appetitive operation is gauged according to the thing which is the object of the operation. Now those things which are beneath the soul are more excellent in the soul than they are in themselves, because a thing is contained according to the mode of the container (De Causis xii). On the other hand, things that are above the soul, are more excellent in themselves than they are in the soul. Consequently it is better to know than to love the things that are beneath us; for which reason the Philosopher gave the preference to the intellectual virtues over the moral virtues (Ethic. x, 7, 8): whereas the love of the things that are above us, especially of God, ranks before the knowledge of such things. Therefore charity is more excellent than faith. Ad secundum dicendum quod fides non operatur per dilectionem sicut per instrumentum, ut dominus per servum; sed sicut per formam propriam. Et ideo ratio non sequitur. Reply Obj. 2: Faith works by love, not instrumentally, as a master by his servant, but as by its proper form: hence the argument does not prove. Ad tertium dicendum quod idem bonum est obiectum caritatis et spei, sed caritas importat unionem ad illud bonum, spes autem distantiam quandam ab eo. Et inde est quod caritas non respicit illud bonum ut arduum sicut spes, quod enim iam unitum est non habet rationem ardui. Et ex hoc apparet quod caritas est perfectior spe. Reply Obj. 3: The same good is the object of charity and of hope: but charity implies union with that good, whereas hope implies distance therefrom. Hence charity does not regard that good as being arduous, as hope does, since what is already united has not the character of arduous: and this shows that charity is more perfect than hope.