Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut supra dictum est, peccatum mortale dicitur quod tollit spiritualem vitam, quae est per caritatem, secundum quam Deus nos inhabitat, unde illud peccatum ex suo genere est mortale quod de se, secundum propriam rationem, contrariatur caritati. Huiusmodi autem est acedia. Nam proprius effectus caritatis est gaudium de Deo, ut supra dictum est, acedia autem est tristitia de bono spirituali inquantum est bonum divinum. Unde secundum suum genus acedia est peccatum mortale. Sed considerandum est in omnibus peccatis quae sunt secundum suum genus mortalia quod non sunt mortalia nisi quando suam perfectionem consequuntur. Est autem consummatio peccati in consensu rationis, loquimur enim nunc de peccato humano, quod in actu humano consistit, cuius principium est ratio. Unde si sit inchoatio peccati in sola sensualitate, et non pertingat usque ad consensum rationis, propter imperfectionem actus est peccatum veniale. Sicut in genere adulterii concupiscentia quae consistit in sola sensualitate est peccatum veniale; si tamen pervenitur usque ad consensum rationis, est peccatum mortale. Ita etiam et motus acediae in sola sensualitate quandoque est, propter repugnantiam carnis ad spiritum, et tunc est peccatum veniale. Quandoque vero pertingit usque ad rationem, quae consentit in fugam et horrorem et detestationem boni divini, carne omnino contra spiritum praevalente. Et tunc manifestum est quod acedia est peccatum mortale. I answer that, As stated above (I-II, Q. 88, AA. 1, 2), mortal sin is so called because it destroys the spiritual life which is the effect of charity, whereby God dwells in us. Wherefore any sin which by its very nature is contrary to charity is a mortal sin by reason of its genus. And such is sloth, because the proper effect of charity is joy in God, as stated above (Q. 28, A. 1), while sloth is sorrow about spiritual good inasmuch as it is a Divine good. Therefore sloth is a mortal sin in respect of its genus. But it must be observed with regard to all sins that are mortal in respect of their genus, that they are not mortal, save when they attain to their perfection. Because the consummation of sin is in the consent of reason: for we are speaking now of human sins consisting in human acts, the principle of which is the reason. Wherefore if the sin be a mere beginning of sin in the sensuality alone, without attaining to the consent of reason, it is a venial sin on account of the imperfection of the act. Thus in the genus of adultery, the concupiscence that goes no further than the sensuality is a venial sin, whereas if it reach to the consent of reason, it is a mortal sin. So too, the movement of sloth is sometimes in the sensuality alone, by reason of the opposition of the flesh to the spirit, and then it is a venial sin; whereas sometimes it reaches to the reason, which consents in the dislike, horror and detestation of the Divine good, on account of the flesh utterly prevailing over the spirit. In this case it is evident that sloth is a mortal sin. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod acedia contrariatur praecepto de sanctificatione sabbati, in quo, secundum quod est praeceptum morale, praecipitur quies mentis in Deo, cui contrariatur tristitia mentis de bono divino. Reply Obj. 1: Sloth is opposed to the precept about hallowing the Sabbath day. For this precept, insofar as it is a moral precept, implicitly commands the mind to rest in God: and sorrow of the mind about the Divine good is contrary thereto. Ad secundum dicendum quod acedia non est recessus mentalis a quocumque spirituali bono, sed a bono divino, cui oportet mentem inhaerere ex necessitate. Unde si aliquis contristetur de hoc quod aliquis cogit eum implere opera virtutis quae facere non tenetur, non est peccatum acediae, sed quando contristatur in his quae ei imminent facienda propter Deum. Reply Obj. 2: Sloth is not an aversion of the mind from any spiritual good, but from the Divine good, to which the mind is obliged to adhere. Wherefore if a man is sorry because someone forces him to do acts of virtue that he is not bound to do, this is not a sin of sloth; but when he is sorry to have to do something for God’s sake. Ad tertium dicendum quod in viris sanctis inveniuntur aliqui imperfecti motus acediae, qui tamen non pertingunt usque ad consensum rationis. Reply Obj. 3: Imperfect movements of sloth are to be found in holy men, but they do not reach to the consent of reason. Articulus 4 Article 4 Utrum acedia debeat poni vitium capitale Whether sloth should be accounted a capital vice? Ad quartum sic proceditur. Videtur quod acedia non debeat poni vitium capitale. Vitium enim capitale dicitur quod movet ad actus peccatorum, ut supra habitum est. Sed acedia non movet ad agendum, sed magis retrahit ab agendo. Ergo non debet poni vitium capitale. Objection 1: It would seem that sloth ought not to be accounted a capital vice. For a capital vice is one that moves a man to sinful acts, as stated above (Q. 34, A. 5). Now sloth does not move one to action, but on the contrary withdraws one from it. Therefore it should not be accounted a capital sin. Praeterea, vitium capitale habet filias sibi deputatas. Assignat autem Gregorius, XXXI Moral., sex filias acediae, quae sunt malitia, rancor, pusillanimitas, desperatio, torpor circa praecepta, vagatio mentis circa illicita, quae non videntur convenienter oriri ex acedia. Nam rancor idem esse videtur quod odium, quod oritur ex invidia, ut supra dictum est. Malitia autem est genus ad omnia vitia, et similiter vagatio mentis circa illicita, et in omnibus vitiis inveniuntur. Torpor autem circa praecepta idem videtur esse quod acedia. Pusillanimitas autem et desperatio ex quibuscumque peccatis oriri possunt. Non ergo convenienter ponitur acedia esse vitium capitale. Obj. 2: Further, a capital sin is one to which daughters are assigned. Now Gregory (Moral. xxxi, 45) assigns six daughters to sloth, viz. malice, spite, faint-heartedness, despair, sluggishness in regard to the commandments, wandering of the mind after unlawful things. Now these do not seem in reality to arise from sloth. For spite is, seemingly the same as hatred, which arises from envy, as stated above (Q. 34, A. 6); malice is a genus which contains all vices, and, in like manner, a wandering of the mind after unlawful things is to be found in every vice; sluggishness about the commandments seems to be the same as sloth, while faint-heartedness and despair may arise from any sin. Therefore sloth is not rightly accounted a capital sin. Praeterea, Isidorus, in libro de summo bono, distinguit vitium acediae a vitio tristitiae, dicens tristitiam esse inquantum recedit a graviori et laborioso ad quod tenetur; acediam inquantum se convertit ad quietem indebitam. Et dicit de tristitia oriri rancorem, pusillanimitatem, amaritudinem, desperationem, de acedia vero dicit oriri septem, quae sunt otiositas, somnolentia, importunitas mentis, inquietudo corporis, instabilitas, verbositas, curiositas. Ergo videtur quod vel a Gregorio vel ab Isidoro male assignetur acedia vitium capitale cum suis filiabus. Obj. 3: Further, Isidore distinguishes the vice of sloth from the vice of sorrow, saying (De Summo Bono ii, 37) that insofar as a man shirks his duty because it is distasteful and burdensome, it is sorrow, and insofar as he is inclined to undue repose, it is sloth: and of sorrow he says that it gives rise to spite, faint-heartedness, bitterness, despair, whereas he states that from sloth seven things arise, viz. idleness, drowsiness, uneasiness of the mind, restlessness of the body, instability, loquacity, curiosity. Therefore it seems that either Gregory or Isidore has wrongly assigned sloth as a capital sin together with its daughters. Sed contra est quod Gregorius dicit, XXXI Moral., acediam esse vitium capitale et habere praedictas filias. On the contrary, The same Gregory (Moral. xxxi, 45) states that sloth is a capital sin, and has the daughters aforesaid. Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut supra dictum est, vitium capitale dicitur ex quo promptum est ut alia vitia oriantur secundum rationem causae finalis. Sicut autem homines multa operantur propter delectationem, tum ut ipsam consequantur, tum etiam ex eius impetu ad aliquid agendum permoti; ita etiam propter tristitiam multa operantur, vel ut ipsam evitent, vel ex eius pondere in aliqua agenda proruentes. Unde cum acedia sit tristitia quaedam, ut supra dictum est, convenienter ponitur vitium capitale. I answer that, As stated above (I-II, Q. 84, AA. 3, 4), a capital vice is one which easily gives rise to others as being their final cause. Now just as we do many things on account of pleasure, both in order to obtain it, and through being moved to do something under the impulse of pleasure, so again we do many things on account of sorrow, either that we may avoid it, or through being exasperated into doing something under pressure thereof. Wherefore, since sloth is a kind of sorrow, as stated above (A. 2; I-II, Q. 85, A. 8), it is fittingly reckoned a capital sin. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod acedia, aggravando animum, impedit hominem ab illis operibus quae tristitiam causant. Sed tamen inducit animum ad aliqua agenda vel quae sunt tristitiae consona, sicut ad plorandum; vel etiam ad aliqua per quae tristitia evitatur. Reply Obj. 1: Sloth by weighing on the mind, hinders us from doing things that cause sorrow: nevertheless it induces the mind to do certain things, either because they are in harmony with sorrow, such as weeping, or because they are a means of avoiding sorrow. Ad secundum dicendum quod Gregorius convenienter assignat filias acediae. Quia enim, ut Philosophus dicit, in VIII Ethic., nullus diu absque delectatione potest manere cum tristitia, necesse est quod ex tristitia aliquid dupliciter oriatur, uno modo, ut homo recedat a contristantibus; alio modo, ut ad alia transeat in quibus delectatur, sicut illi qui non possunt gaudere in spiritualibus delectationibus transferunt se ad corporales, secundum Philosophum, in X Ethic. In fuga autem tristitiae talis processus attenditur quod primo homo fugit contristantia; secundo, etiam impugnat ea quae tristitiam ingerunt. Spiritualia autem bona, de quibus tristatur acedia, sunt et finis et id quod est ad finem. Fuga autem finis fit per desperationem. Fuga autem bonorum quae sunt ad finem, quantum ad ardua, quae subsunt consiliis, fit per pusillanimitatem; quantum autem ad ea quae pertinent ad communem iustitiam, fit per torporem circa praecepta. Impugnatio autem contristantium bonorum spiritualium quandoque quidem est contra homines qui ad bona spiritualia inducunt, et hoc est rancor; quandoque vero se extendit ad ipsa spiritualia bona, in quorum detestationem aliquis adducitur, et hoc proprie est malitia. Inquantum autem propter tristitiam a spiritualibus aliquis transfert se ad delectabilia exteriora, ponitur filia acediae evagatio circa illicita. Per quod patet responsio ad ea quae circa singulas filias obiiciebantur. Nam malitia non accipitur hic secundum quod est genus vitiorum, sed sicut dictum est. Rancor etiam non accipitur hic communiter pro odio, sed pro quadam indignatione, sicut dictum est. Et idem dicendum est de aliis. Reply Obj. 2: Gregory fittingly assigns the daughters of sloth. For since, according to the Philosopher (Ethic. viii, 5, 6) no man can be a long time in company with what is painful and unpleasant, it follows that something arises from sorrow in two ways: first, that man shuns whatever causes sorrow; second, that he passes to other things that give him pleasure: thus those who find no joy in spiritual pleasures, have recourse to pleasures of the body, according to the Philosopher (Ethic. x, 6). Now in the avoidance of sorrow the order observed is that man at first flies from unpleasant objects, and second he even struggles against such things as cause sorrow. Now spiritual goods which are the object of the sorrow of sloth, are both end and means. Avoidance of the end is the result of despair, while avoidance of those goods which are the means to the end, in matters of difficulty which come under the counsels, is the effect of faint-heartedness, and in matters of common righteousness, is the effect of sluggishness about the commandments. The struggle against spiritual goods that cause sorrow is sometimes with men who lead others to spiritual goods, and this is called spite; and sometimes it extends to the spiritual goods themselves, when a man goes so far as to detest them, and this is properly called malice. Insofar as a man has recourse to external objects of pleasure, the daughter of sloth is called wandering after unlawful things. From this it is clear how to reply to the objections against each of the daughters: for malice does not denote here that which is generic to all vices, but must be understood as explained. Nor is spite taken as synonymous with hatred, but for a kind of indignation, as stated above: and the same applies to the others. Ad tertium dicendum quod etiam Cassianus, in libro de institutis Coenob., distinguit tristitiam ab acedia, sed convenientius Gregorius acediam tristitiam nominat. Quia sicut supra dictum est, tristitia non est vitium ab aliis distinctum secundum quod aliquis recedit a gravi et laborioso opere, vel secundum quascumque alias causas aliquis tristetur, sed solum secundum quod contristatur de bono divino. Quod pertinet ad rationem acediae, quae intantum convertit ad quietem indebitam inquantum aspernatur bonum divinum. Illa autem quae Isidorus ponit oriri ex tristitia et acedia reducuntur ad ea quae Gregorius ponit. Nam amaritudo, quam ponit Isidorus oriri ex tristitia, est quidam effectus rancoris. Otiositas autem et somnolentia reducuntur ad torporem circa praecepta, circa quae est aliquis otiosus, omnino ea praetermittens et somnolentus, ea negligenter implens. Omnia autem alia quinque quae ponit ex acedia oriri pertinent ad evagationem mentis circa illicita. Quae quidem secundum quod in ipsa arce mentis residet volentis importune ad diversa se diffundere, vocatur importunitas mentis; secundum autem quod pertinet ad cognitivam, dicitur curiositas; quantum autem ad locutionem, dicitur verbositas; quantum autem ad corpus in eodem loco non manens, dicitur inquietudo corporis, quando scilicet aliquis per inordinatos motus membrorum vagationem indicat mentis; quantum autem ad diversa loca, dicitur instabilitas. Vel potest accipi instabilitas secundum mutabilitatem propositi. Reply Obj. 3: This distinction between sorrow and sloth is also given by Cassian (De Instit. Coenob. x, 1). But Gregory more fittingly (Moral. xxxi, 45) calls sloth a kind of sorrow, because, as stated above (A. 2), sorrow is not a distinct vice, insofar as a man shirks a distasteful and burdensome work, or sorrows on account of any other cause whatever, but only insofar as he is sorry on account of the Divine good, which sorrow belongs essentially to sloth; since sloth seeks undue rest insofar as it spurns the Divine good. Moreover the things which Isidore reckons to arise from sloth and sorrow, are reduced to those mentioned by Gregory: for bitterness which Isidore states to be the result of sorrow, is an effect of spite. Idleness and drowsiness are reduced to sluggishness about the precepts: for some are idle and omit them altogether, while others are drowsy and fulfill them with negligence. All the other five which he reckons as effects of sloth, belong to the wandering of the mind after unlawful things. This tendency to wander, if it reside in the mind itself that is desirous of rushing after various things without rhyme or reason, is called uneasiness of the mind, but if it pertains to the imaginative power, it is called curiosity; if it affect the speech it is called loquacity; and insofar as it affects a body that changes place, it is called restlessness of the body, when, to wit, a man shows the unsteadiness of his mind, by the inordinate movements of members of his body; while if it causes the body to move from one place to another, it is called instability; or instability may denote changeableness of purpose. Quaestio 36 Question 36 De invidia Envy Deinde considerandum est de invidia. Et circa hoc quaeruntur quatuor. We must now consider envy, and under this head there are four points of inquiry: Primo, quid sit invidia. (1) What is envy? Secundo, utrum sit peccatum. (2) Whether it is a sin? Tertio, utrum sit peccatum mortale. (3) Whether it is a mortal sin? Quarto, utrum sit vitium capitale, et de filiabus eius. (4) Whether it is a capital sin, and which are its daughters? Articulus 1 Article 1 Utrum invidia sit tristitia Whether envy is a kind of sorrow? Ad primum sic proceditur. Videtur quod invidia non sit tristitia. Obiectum enim tristitiae est malum. Sed obiectum invidiae est bonum, dicit enim Gregorius, in V Moral., de invido loquens, tabescentem mentem sua poena sauciat, quam felicitas torquet aliena. Ergo invidia non est tristitia. Objection 1: It would seem that envy is not a kind of sorrow. For the object of envy is a good, for Gregory says (Moral. v, 46) of the envious man that self-inflicted pain wounds the pining spirit, which is racked by the prosperity of another. Therefore envy is not a kind of sorrow. Praeterea, similitudo non est causa tristitiae, sed magis delectationis. Sed similitudo est causa invidiae, dicit enim philosophus, in II Rhet., invidebunt tales quibus sunt aliqui similes aut secundum genus, aut secundum cognationem, aut secundum staturam, aut secundum habitum, aut secundum opinionem. Ergo invidia non est tristitia. Obj. 2: Further, likeness is a cause, not of sorrow but rather of pleasure. But likeness is a cause of envy: for the Philosopher says (Rhet. ii, 10): Men are envious of such as are like them in genus, in knowledge, in stature, in habit, or in reputation. Therefore envy is not a kind of sorrow. Praeterea, tristitia ex aliquo defectu causatur, unde illi qui sunt in magno defectu sunt ad tristitiam proni, ut supra dictum est, cum de passionibus ageretur. Sed illi quibus modicum deficit, et qui sunt amatores honoris, et qui reputantur sapientes, sunt invidi; ut patet per Philosophum, in II Rhet. Ergo invidia non est tristitia. Obj. 3: Further, sorrow is caused by a defect, wherefore those who are in great defect are inclined to sorrow, as stated above (I-II, Q. 47, A. 3) when we were treating of the passions. Now those who lack little, and who love honors, and who are considered wise, are envious, according to the Philosopher (Rhet. ii, 10). Therefore envy is not a kind of sorrow. Praeterea, tristitia delectationi opponitur. Oppositorum autem non est eadem causa. Ergo, cum memoria bonorum habitorum sit causa delectationis, ut supra dictum est, non erit causa tristitiae. Est autem causa invidiae, dicit enim philosophus, in II Rhet., quod his aliqui invident qui habent aut possederunt quae ipsis conveniebant aut quae ipsi quandoque possidebant. Ergo invidia non est tristitia. Obj. 4: Further, sorrow is opposed to pleasure. Now opposite effects have not one and the same cause. Therefore, since the recollection of goods once possessed is a cause of pleasure, as stated above (I-II, Q. 32, A. 3) it will not be a cause of sorrow. But it is a cause of envy; for the Philosopher says (Rhet. ii, 10) that we envy those who have or have had things that befitted ourselves, or which we possessed at some time. Therefore envy is not a kind of sorrow. Sed contra est quod Damascenus, in II libro, ponit invidiam speciem tristitiae, et dicit quod invidia est tristitia in alienis bonis. On the contrary, Damascene (De Fide Orth. ii, 14) calls envy a species of sorrow, and says that envy is sorrow for another’s good. Respondeo dicendum quod obiectum tristitiae est malum proprium. Contingit autem id quod est alienum bonum apprehendi ut malum proprium. Et secundum hoc de bono alieno potest esse tristitia. Sed hoc contingit dupliciter. Uno modo, quando quis tristatur de bono alicuius inquantum imminet sibi ex hoc periculum alicuius nocumenti, sicut cum homo tristatur de exaltatione inimici sui, timens ne eum laedat. Et talis tristitia non est invidia, sed magis timoris effectus; ut philosophus dicit, in II Rhet. I answer that, The object of a man’s sorrow is his own evil. Now it may happen that another’s good is apprehended as one’s own evil, and in this way sorrow can be about another’s good. But this happens in two ways: first, when a man is sorry about another’s good, insofar as it threatens to be an occasion of harm to himself, as when a man grieves for his enemy’s prosperity, for fear lest he may do him some harm: such like sorrow is not envy, but rather an effect of fear, as the Philosopher states (Rhet. ii, 9). Alio modo bonum alterius aestimatur ut malum proprium inquantum est diminutivum propriae gloriae vel excellentiae. Et hoc modo de bono alterius tristatur invidia. Et ideo praecipue de illis bonis homines invident in quibus est gloria, et in quibus homines amant honorari et in opinione esse; ut Philosophus dicit, in II Rhet. Second, another’s good may be reckoned as being one’s own evil, insofar as it conduces to the lessening of one’s own good name or excellence. It is in this way that envy grieves for another’s good: and consequently men are envious of those goods in which a good name consists, and about which men like to be honored and esteemed, as the Philosopher remarks (Rhet. ii, 10). Ad primum ergo dicendum quod nihil prohibet id quod est bonum uni apprehendi ut malum alteri. Et secundum hoc tristitia aliqua potest esse de bono, ut dictum est. Reply Obj. 1: Nothing hinders what is good for one from being reckoned as evil for another: and in this way it is possible for sorrow to be about good, as stated above. Ad secundum dicendum quod quia invidia est de gloria alterius inquantum diminuit gloriam quam quis appetit, consequens est ut ad illos tantum invidia habeatur quibus homo vult se aequare vel praeferre in gloria. Hoc autem non est respectu multum a se distantium, nullus enim, nisi insanus, studet se aequare vel praeferre in gloria his qui sunt multo eo maiores, puta plebeius homo regi; vel etiam rex plebeio, quem multum excedit. Et ideo his qui multum distant vel loco vel tempore vel statu homo non invidet, sed his qui sunt propinqui, quibus se nititur aequare vel praeferre. Nam cum illi excedunt in gloria, accidit hoc contra nostram utilitatem, et inde causatur tristitia. Similitudo autem delectationem causat inquantum concordat voluntati. Reply Obj. 2: Since envy is about another’s good name insofar as it diminishes the good name a man desires to have, it follows that a man is envious of those only whom he wishes to rival or surpass in reputation. But this does not apply to people who are far removed from one another: for no man, unless he be out of his mind, endeavors to rival or surpass in reputation those who are far above him. Thus a commoner does not envy the king, nor does the king envy a commoner whom he is far above. Wherefore a man envies not those who are far removed from him, whether in place, time, or station, but those who are near him, and whom he strives to rival or surpass. For it is against our will that these should be in better repute than we are, and that gives rise to sorrow. On the other hand, likeness causes pleasure insofar as it is in agreement with the will. Ad tertium dicendum quod nullus conatur ad ea in quibus est multum deficiens. Et ideo cum aliquis in hoc eum excedat, non invidet. Sed si modicum deficiat, videtur quod ad hoc pertingere possit, et sic ad hoc conatur. Unde si frustraretur eius conatus propter excessum gloriae alterius, tristatur. Et inde est quod amatores honoris sunt magis invidi. Et similiter etiam pusillanimes sunt invidi, quia omnia reputant magna, et quidquid boni alicui accidat, reputant se in magno superatos esse. Unde et Iob V dicitur, parvulum occidit invidia. Et dicit Gregorius, in V Moral., quod invidere non possumus nisi eis quos nobis in aliquo meliores putamus. Reply Obj. 3: A man does not strive for mastery in matters where he is very deficient; so that he does not envy one who surpasses him in such matters, unless he surpass him by little, for then it seems to him that this is not beyond him, and so he makes an effort; wherefore, if his effort fails through the other’s reputation surpassing his, he grieves. Hence it is that those who love to be honored are more envious; and in like manner the faint-hearted are envious, because all things are great to them, and whatever good may befall another, they reckon that they themselves have been bested in something great. Hence it is written (Job 5:2): Envy slayeth the little one, and Gregory says (Moral. v, 46) that we can envy those only whom we think better in some respect than ourselves. Ad quartum dicendum quod memoria praeteritorum bonorum, inquantum fuerunt habita, delectationem causat, sed inquantum sunt amissa, causant tristitiam. Et inquantum ab aliis habentur, causant invidiam, quia hoc maxime videtur gloriae propriae derogare. Et ideo dicit philosophus, in II Rhet., quod senes invident iunioribus; et illi qui multa expenderunt ad aliquid consequendum invident his qui parvis expensis illud sunt consecuti; dolent enim de amissione suorum bonorum, et de hoc quod alii consecuti sunt bona. Reply Obj. 4: Recollection of past goods insofar as we have had them, causes pleasure; insofar as we have lost them, causes sorrow; and insofar as others have them, causes envy, because that, above all, seems to belittle our reputation. Hence the Philosopher says (Rhet. ii) that the old envy the young, and those who have spent much in order to get something, envy those who have got it by spending little, because they grieve that they have lost their goods, and that others have acquired goods. Articulus 2 Article 2 Utrum invidia sit peccatum Whether envy is a sin?