Utrum sit licitum in bellis uti insidiis Whether it is lawful to lay ambushes in war? Ad tertium sic proceditur. Videtur quod non sit licitum in bellis uti insidiis. Dicitur enim Deut. XVI, iuste quod iustum est exequeris. Sed insidiae, cum sint fraudes quaedam, videntur ad iniustitiam pertinere. Ergo non est utendum insidiis etiam in bellis iustis. Objection 1: It would seem that it is unlawful to lay ambushes in war. For it is written (Deut 16:20): Thou shalt follow justly after that which is just. But ambushes, since they are a kind of deception, seem to pertain to injustice. Therefore it is unlawful to lay ambushes even in a just war. Praeterea, insidiae et fraudes fidelitati videntur opponi, sicut et mendacia. Sed quia ad omnes fidem debemus servare, nulli homini est mentiendum; ut patet per Augustinum, in libro contra mendacium. Cum ergo fides hosti servanda sit, ut Augustinus dicit, ad Bonifacium, videtur quod non sit contra hostes insidiis utendum. Obj. 2: Further, ambushes and deception seem to be opposed to faithfulness even as lies are. But since we are bound to keep faith with all men, it is wrong to lie to anyone, as Augustine states (Contra Mend. xv). Therefore, as one is bound to keep faith with one’s enemy, as Augustine states (Ep. ad Bonif. clxxxix), it seems that it is unlawful to lay ambushes for one’s enemies. Praeterea, Matth. VII dicitur, quae vultis ut faciant vobis homines, et vos facite illis, et hoc est observandum ad omnes proximos. Inimici autem sunt proximi. Cum ergo nullus sibi velit insidias vel fraudes parari, videtur quod nullus ex insidiis debeat gerere bella. Obj. 3: Further, it is written (Matt 7:12): Whatsoever you would that men should do to you, do you also to them: and we ought to observe this in all our dealings with our neighbor. Now our enemy is our neighbor. Therefore, since no man wishes ambushes or deceptions to be prepared for himself, it seems that no one ought to carry on war by laying ambushes. Sed contra est quod Augustinus dicit, in libro quaest., cum iustum bellum suscipitur, utrum aperte pugnet aliquis an ex insidiis, nihil ad iustitiam interest. Et hoc probat auctoritate domini, qui mandavit Iosue ut insidias poneret habitatoribus civitatis hai, ut habetur Ios. VIII. On the contrary, Augustine says (QQ. in Hept. qu. x super Jos): Provided the war be just, it is no concern of justice whether it be carried on openly or by ambushes: and he proves this by the authority of the Lord, Who commanded Joshua to lay ambushes for the city of Hai (Josh 8:2). Respondeo dicendum quod insidiae ordinantur ad fallendum hostes. Dupliciter autem aliquis potest falli ex facto vel dicto alterius uno modo, ex eo quod ei dicitur falsum, vel non servatur promissum. Et istud semper est illicitum. Et hoc modo nullus debet hostes fallere, sunt enim quaedam iura bellorum et foedera etiam inter ipsos hostes servanda, ut Ambrosius dicit, in libro de officiis. I answer that, The object of laying ambushes is in order to deceive the enemy. Now a man may be deceived by another’s word or deed in two ways. First, through being told something false, or through the breaking of a promise, and this is always unlawful. No one ought to deceive the enemy in this way, for there are certain rights of war and covenants, which ought to be observed even among enemies, as Ambrose states (De Officiis i). Alio modo potest aliquis falli ex dicto vel facto nostro, quia ei propositum aut intellectum non aperimus. Hoc autem semper facere non tenemur, quia etiam in doctrina sacra multa sunt occultanda, maxime infidelibus, ne irrideant, secundum illud Matth. VII, nolite sanctum dare canibus. Unde multo magis ea quae ad impugnandum inimicos paramus sunt eis occultanda. Unde inter cetera documenta rei militaris hoc praecipue ponitur de occultandis consiliis ne ad hostes perveniant; ut patet in libro stratagematum Frontini. Et talis occultatio pertinet ad rationem insidiarum quibus licitum est uti in bellis iustis. Second, a man may be deceived by what we say or do, because we do not declare our purpose or meaning to him. Now we are not always bound to do this, since even in the Sacred Doctrine many things have to be concealed, especially from unbelievers, lest they deride it, according to Matt. 7:6: Give not that which is holy, to dogs. Wherefore much more ought the plan of campaign to be hidden from the enemy. For this reason among other things that a soldier has to learn is the art of concealing his purpose lest it come to the enemy’s knowledge, as stated in the Book on Strategy by Frontinus. Such like concealment is what is meant by an ambush which may be lawfully employed in a just war. Nec proprie huiusmodi insidiae vocantur fraudes; nec iustitiae repugnant; nec ordinatae voluntati, esset enim inordinata voluntas si aliquis vellet nihil sibi ab aliis occultari. Nor can these ambushes be properly called deceptions, nor are they contrary to justice or to a well-ordered will. For a man would have an inordinate will if he were unwilling that others should hide anything from him. Et per hoc patet responsio ad obiecta. This suffices for the Replies to the Objections. Articulus 4 Article 4 Utrum in diebus festis liceat bellare Whether it is lawful to fight on holy days? Ad quartum sic proceditur. Videtur quod in diebus festis non liceat bellare. Festa enim sunt ordinata ad vacandum divinis, unde intelliguntur per observationem sabbati, quae praecipitur Exod. XX; sabbatum enim interpretatur requies. Sed bella maximam inquietudinem habent. Ergo nullo modo est in diebus festis pugnandum. Objection 1: It would seem unlawful to fight on holy days. For holy days are instituted that we may give our time to the things of God. Hence they are included in the keeping of the Sabbath prescribed Ex. 20:8: for sabbath is interpreted rest. But wars are full of unrest. Therefore by no means is it lawful to fight on holy days. Praeterea, Isaiae LVIII reprehenduntur quidam quod in diebus ieiunii repetunt debita et committunt lites, pugno percutientes. Ergo multo magis in diebus festis illicitum est bellare. Obj. 2: Further, certain persons are reproached (Isa 58:3) because on fast-days they exacted what was owing to them, and were guilty of strife and smiting with the fist. Much more, therefore, is it unlawful to fight on holy days. Praeterea, nihil est inordinate agendum ad vitandum incommodum temporale. Sed bellare in die festo, hoc videtur esse secundum se inordinatum. Ergo pro nulla necessitate temporalis incommodi vitandi debet aliquis in die festo bellare. Obj. 3: Further, no ill deed should be done to avoid temporal harm. But fighting on a holy day seems in itself to be an ill deed. Therefore no one should fight on a holy day even through the need of avoiding temporal harm. Sed contra est quod I Machab. II dicitur, cogitaverunt laudabiliter Iudaei, dicentes, omnis homo quicumque venerit ad nos in bello in die sabbatorum, pugnemus adversus eum. On the contrary, It is written (1 Macc 2:41): The Jews rightly determined . . . saying: Whosoever shall come up against us to fight on the Sabbath-day, we will fight against him. Respondeo dicendum quod observatio festorum non impedit ea quae ordinantur ad hominis salutem etiam corporalem. Unde dominus arguit Iudaeos, dicens, Ioan. VII, mihi indignamini quia totum hominem salvum feci in sabbato? Et inde est quod medici licite possunt medicari homines in die festo. Multo autem magis est conservanda salus reipublicae, per quam impediuntur occisiones plurimorum et innumera mala et temporalia et spiritualia, quam salus corporalis unius hominis. Et ideo pro tuitione reipublicae fidelium licitum est iusta bella exercere in diebus festis, si tamen hoc necessitas exposcat, hoc enim esset tentare Deum, si quis, imminente tali necessitate, a bello vellet abstinere. I answer that, The observance of holy days is no hindrance to those things which are ordained to man’s safety, even that of his body. Hence Our Lord argued with the Jews, saying (John 7:23): Are you angry at Me because I have healed the whole man on the Sabbath-day? Hence physicians may lawfully attend to their patients on holy days. Now there is much more reason for safeguarding the common weal (whereby many are saved from being slain, and innumerable evils both temporal and spiritual prevented), than the bodily safety of an individual. Therefore, for the purpose of safeguarding the common weal of the faithful, it is lawful to carry on a war on holy days, provided there be need for doing so: because it would be to tempt God, if notwithstanding such a need, one were to choose to refrain from fighting. Sed necessitate cessante, non est licitum bellare in diebus festis, propter rationes inductas. However, as soon as the need ceases, it is no longer lawful to fight on a holy day, for the reasons given. Et per hoc patet responsio ad obiecta. Wherefore this suffices for the Replies to the Objections. Quaestio 41 Question 41 De rixa Strife Deinde considerandum est de rixa. Et circa hoc quaeruntur duo. We must now consider strife, under which head there are two points of inquiry: Primo, utrum rixa sit peccatum. (1) Whether strife is a sin? Secundo, utrum sit filia irae. (2) Whether it is a daughter of anger? Articulus 1 Article 1 Utrum rixa semper sit peccatum Whether strife is always a sin? Ad primum sic proceditur. Videtur quod rixa non semper sit peccatum. Rixa enim videtur esse contentio quaedam, dicit enim Isidorus, in libro Etymol., quod rixosus est a rictu canino dictus, semper enim ad contradicendum paratus est, et iurgio delectatur, et provocat contendentem. Sed contentio non semper est peccatum. Ergo neque rixa. Objection 1: It would seem that strife is not always a sin. For strife seems a kind of contention: hence Isidore says (Etym. x) that the word rixosus is derived from the snarling of a dog, because the quarrelsome man is ever ready to contradict; he delights in brawling, and provokes contention. Now contention is not always a sin. Neither, therefore, is strife. Praeterea, Gen. XXVI dicitur quod servi Isaac foderunt alium puteum, et pro illo quoque rixati sunt. Sed non est credendum quod familia Isaac rixaretur publice, eo non contradicente, si hoc esset peccatum. Ergo rixa non est peccatum. Obj. 2: Further, it is related (Gen 26:21) that the servants of Isaac digged another well, and for that they quarrelled likewise. Now it is not credible that the household of Isaac quarrelled publicly, without being reproved by him, supposing it were a sin. Therefore strife is not a sin. Praeterea, rixa videtur esse quoddam particulare bellum. Sed bellum non semper est peccatum. Ergo rixa non semper est peccatum. Obj. 3: Further, strife seems to be a war between individuals. But war is not always sinful. Therefore strife is not always a sin. Sed contra est quod ad Gal. V rixae ponuntur inter opera carnis, quae qui agunt regnum Dei non consequuntur. Ergo rixae non solum sunt peccata, sed etiam sunt peccata mortalia. On the contrary, Strifes are reckoned among the works of the flesh (Gal 5:20), and they who do such things shall not obtain the kingdom of God. Therefore strifes are not only sinful, but they are even mortal sins. Respondeo dicendum quod sicut contentio importat quandam contradictionem verborum, ita etiam rixa importat quandam contradictionem in factis, unde super illud Gal. V dicit Glossa quod rixae sunt quando ex ira invicem se percutiunt. Et ideo rixa videtur esse quoddam privatum bellum, quod inter privatas personas agitur non ex aliqua publica auctoritate, sed magis ex inordinata voluntate. Et ideo rixa semper importat peccatum. Et in eo quidem qui alterum invadit iniuste est peccatum mortale, inferre enim nocumentum proximo etiam opere manuali non est absque mortali peccato. In eo autem qui se defendit potest esse sine peccato, et quandoque cum peccato veniali, et quandoque etiam cum mortali, secundum diversum motum animi eius, et diversum modum se defendendi. Nam si solo animo repellendi iniuriam illatam, et cum debita moderatione se defendat, non est peccatum, nec proprie potest dici rixa ex parte eius. Si vero cum animo vindictae vel odii, vel cum excessu debitae moderationis se defendat, semper est peccatum, sed veniale quidem quando aliquis levis motus odii vel vindictae se immiscet, vel cum non multum excedat moderatam defensionem; mortale autem quando obfirmato animo in impugnantem insurgit ad eum occidendum vel graviter laedendum. I answer that, While contention implies a contradiction of words, strife denotes a certain contradiction of deeds. Wherefore a gloss on Gal. 5:20 says that strifes are when persons strike one another through anger. Hence strife is a kind of private war, because it takes place between private persons, being declared not by public authority, but rather by an inordinate will. Therefore strife is always sinful. In fact it is a mortal sin in the man who attacks another unjustly, for it is not without mortal sin that one inflicts harm on another even if the deed be done by the hands. But in him who defends himself, it may be without sin, or it may sometimes involve a venial sin, or sometimes a mortal sin; and this depends on his intention and on his manner of defending himself. For if his sole intention be to withstand the injury done to him, and he defend himself with due moderation, it is no sin, and one cannot say properly that there is strife on his part. But if, on the other hand, his self-defense be inspired by vengeance and hatred, it is always a sin. It is a venial sin, if a slight movement of hatred or vengeance obtrude itself, or if he does not much exceed moderation in defending himself: but it is a mortal sin if he makes for his assailant with the fixed intention of killing him, or inflicting grievous harm on him. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod rixa non simpliciter nominat contentionem, sed tria in praemissis verbis Isidori ponuntur quae inordinationem rixae declarant. Primo quidem, promptitudinem animi ad contendendum, quod significat cum dicit, semper ad contradicendum paratus, scilicet sive alius bene aut male dicat aut faciat. Secundo, quia in ipsa contradictione delectatur, unde sequitur, et in iurgio delectatur. Tertio, quia ipse alios provocat ad contradictiones, unde sequitur, et provocat contendentem. Reply Obj. 1: Strife is not just the same as contention: and there are three things in the passage quoted from Isidore, which express the inordinate nature of strife. First, the quarrelsome man is always ready to fight, and this is conveyed by the words, ever ready to contradict, that is to say, whether the other man says or does well or ill. Second, he delights in quarrelling itself, and so the passage proceeds, and delights in brawling. Third, he provokes others to quarrel, wherefore it goes on, and provokes contention. Ad secundum dicendum quod ibi non intelligitur quod servi Isaac sint rixati, sed quod incolae terrae rixati sunt contra eos. Unde illi peccaverunt, non autem servi Isaac, qui calumniam patiebantur. Reply Obj. 2: The sense of the text is not that the servants of Isaac quarrelled, but that the inhabitants of that country quarrelled with them: wherefore these sinned, and not the servants of Isaac, who bore the calumny. Ad tertium dicendum quod ad hoc quod iustum sit bellum, requiritur quod fiat auctoritate publicae potestatis, sicut supra dictum est. Rixa autem fit ex privato affectu irae vel odii. Si enim minister principis aut iudicis publica potestate aliquos invadat qui se defendant, non dicuntur ipsi rixari, sed illi qui publicae potestati resistunt. Et sic illi qui invadunt non rixantur neque peccant, sed illi qui se inordinate defendunt. Reply Obj. 3: In order for a war to be just it must be declared by authority of the governing power, as stated above (Q. 40, A. 1); whereas strife proceeds from a private feeling of anger or hatred. For if the servants of a sovereign or judge, in virtue of their public authority, attack certain men and these defend themselves, it is not the former who are said to be guilty of strife, but those who resist the public authority. Hence it is not the assailants in this case who are guilty of strife and commit sin, but those who defend themselves inordinately. Articulus 2 Article 2 Utrum rixa sit filia irae Whether strife is a daughter of anger? Ad secundum sic proceditur. Videtur quod rixa non sit filia irae. Dicitur enim Iac. IV, unde bella et lites in vobis? Nonne ex concupiscentiis quae militant in membris vestris? Sed ira non pertinet ad concupiscibilem. Ergo rixa non est filia irae, sed magis concupiscentiae. Objection 1: It would seem that strife is not a daughter of anger. For it is written (Jas 4:1): Whence are wars and contentions? Are they not . . . from your concupiscences, which war in your members? But anger is not in the concupiscible faculty. Therefore strife is a daughter, not of anger, but of concupiscence.