Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut supra dictum est, cum nomen iustitiae aequalitatem importet, ex sua ratione iustitia habet quod sit ad alterum, nihil enim est sibi aequale, sed alteri. Et quia ad iustitiam pertinet actus humanos rectificare, ut dictum est, necesse est quod alietas ista quam requirit iustitia, sit diversorum agere potentium. Actiones autem sunt suppositorum et totorum, non autem, proprie loquendo, partium et formarum, seu potentiarum, non enim proprie dicitur quod manus percutiat, sed homo per manum; neque proprie dicitur quod calor calefaciat, sed ignis per calorem. Secundum tamen similitudinem quandam haec dicuntur. Iustitia ergo proprie dicta requirit diversitatem suppositorum, et ideo non est nisi unius hominis ad alium. Sed secundum similitudinem accipiuntur in uno et eodem homine diversa principia actionum quasi diversa agentia, sicut ratio et irascibilis et concupiscibilis. Et ideo metaphorice in uno et eodem homine dicitur esse iustitia, secundum quod ratio imperat irascibili et concupiscibili, et secundum quod hae obediunt rationi, et universaliter secundum quod unicuique parti hominis attribuitur quod ei convenit. Unde philosophus, in V Ethic., hanc iustitiam appellat secundum metaphoram dictam. I answer that, As stated above (Q. 57, A. 1) since justice by its name implies equality, it denotes essentially relation to another, for a thing is equal, not to itself, but to another. And forasmuch as it belongs to justice to rectify human acts, as stated above (Q. 57, A. 1; I-II, Q. 113, A. 1) this otherness which justice demands must needs be between beings capable of action. Now actions belong to supposits and wholes and, properly speaking, not to parts and forms or powers, for we do not say properly that the hand strikes, but a man with his hand, nor that heat makes a thing hot, but fire by heat, although such expressions may be employed metaphorically. Hence, justice properly speaking demands a distinction of supposits, and consequently is only in one man towards another. Nevertheless in one and the same man we may speak metaphorically of his various principles of action such as the reason, the irascible, and the concupiscible, as though they were so many agents: so that metaphorically in one and the same man there is said to be justice insofar as the reason commands the irascible and concupiscible, and these obey reason; and in general insofar as to each part of man is ascribed what is becoming to it. Hence the Philosopher (Ethic. v, 11) calls this metaphorical justice. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod iustitia quae fit per fidem in nobis, est per quam iustificatur impius, quae quidem in ipsa debita ordinatione partium animae consistit, sicut supra dictum est, cum de iustificatione impii ageretur. Hoc autem pertinet ad iustitiam metaphorice dictam, quae potest inveniri etiam in aliquo solitariam vitam agente. Reply Obj. 1: The justice which faith works in us, is that whereby the ungodly is justified: it consists in the due coordination of the parts of the soul, as stated above (I-II, Q. 113, A. 1) where we were treating of the justification of the ungodly. Now this belongs to metaphorical justice, which may be found even in a man who lives all by himself. Et per hoc patet responsio ad secundum. This suffices for the Reply to the Second Objection. Ad tertium dicendum quod iustitia Dei est ab aeterno secundum voluntatem et propositum aeternum, et in hoc praecipue iustitia consistit. Quamvis secundum effectum non sit ab aeterno, quia nihil est Deo coaeternum. Reply Obj. 3: God’s justice is from eternity in respect of the eternal will and purpose (and it is chiefly in this that justice consists); although it is not eternal as regards its effect, since nothing is co-eternal with God. Ad quartum dicendum quod actiones quae sunt hominis ad seipsum sufficienter rectificantur rectificatis passionibus per alias virtutes morales. Sed actiones quae sunt ad alterum indigent speciali rectificatione, non solum per comparationem ad agentem, sed etiam per comparationem ad eum ad quem sunt. Et ideo circa eas est specialis virtus, quae est iustitia. Reply Obj. 4: Man’s dealings with himself are sufficiently rectified by the rectification of the passions by the other moral virtues. But his dealings with others need a special rectification, not only in relation to the agent, but also in relation to the person to whom they are directed. Hence about such dealings there is a special virtue, and this is justice. Articulus 3 Article 3 Utrum iustitia sit virtus Whether justice is a virtue? Ad tertium sic proceditur. Videtur quod iustitia non sit virtus. Dicitur enim Luc. XVII, cum feceritis omnia quae praecepta sunt vobis, dicite, servi inutiles sumus, quod debuimus facere fecimus. Sed non est inutile facere opus virtutis, dicit enim Ambrosius, in II de Offic., utilitatem non pecuniarii lucri aestimationem dicimus, sed acquisitionem pietatis. Ergo facere quod quis debet facere non est opus virtutis. Est autem opus iustitiae. Ergo iustitia non est virtus. Objection 1: It would seem that justice is not a virtue. For it is written (Luke 17:10): When you shall have done all these things that are commanded you, say: We are unprofitable servants; we have done that which we ought to do. Now it is not unprofitable to do a virtuous deed: for Ambrose says (De Officiis ii, 6): We look to a profit that is estimated not by pecuniary gain but by the acquisition of godliness. Therefore to do what one ought to do, is not a virtuous deed. And yet it is an act of justice. Therefore justice is not a virtue. Praeterea, quod fit ex necessitate non est meritorium. Sed reddere alicui quod suum est, quod pertinet ad iustitiam, est necessitatis. Ergo non est meritorium. Actibus autem virtutum meremur. Ergo iustitia non est virtus. Obj. 2: Further, that which is done of necessity, is not meritorious. But to render to a man what belongs to him, as justice requires, is of necessity. Therefore it is not meritorious. Yet it is by virtuous actions that we gain merit. Therefore justice is not a virtue. Praeterea, omnis virtus moralis est circa agibilia. Ea autem quae exterius constituuntur non sunt agibilia, sed factibilia, ut patet per philosophum, in IX Metaphys. Cum igitur ad iustitiam pertineat exterius facere aliquod opus secundum se iustum, videtur quod iustitia non sit virtus moralis. Obj. 3: Further, every moral virtue is about matters of action. Now those things which are wrought externally are not things concerning behavior but concerning handicraft, according to the Philosopher (Metaph. ix). Therefore since it belongs to justice to produce externally a deed that is just in itself, it seems that justice is not a moral virtue. Sed contra est quod Gregorius dicit, in II Moral., quod in quatuor virtutibus, scilicet temperantia, prudentia, fortitudine et iustitia, tota boni operis structura consurgit. On the contrary, Gregory says (Moral. ii, 49) that the entire structure of good works is built on four virtues, viz. temperance, prudence, fortitude and justice. Respondeo dicendum quod virtus humana est quae bonum reddit actum humanum, et ipsum hominem bonum facit. Quod quidem convenit iustitiae. Actus enim hominis bonus redditur ex hoc quod attingit regulam rationis, secundum quam humani actus rectificantur. Unde cum iustitia operationes humanas rectificet, manifestum est quod opus hominis bonum reddit. Et ut Tullius dicit, in I de Offic., ex iustitia praecipue viri boni nominantur. Unde, sicut ibidem dicit, in ea virtutis splendor est maximus. I answer that, A human virtue is one which renders a human act and man himself good, and this can be applied to justice. For a man’s act is made good through attaining the rule of reason, which is the rule whereby human acts are regulated. Hence, since justice regulates human operations, it is evident that it renders man’s operations good, and, as Tully declares (De Officiis i, 7), good men are so called chiefly from their justice, wherefore, as he says again (De Officiis i, 7) the luster of virtue appears above all in justice. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod cum aliquis facit quod debet, non affert utilitatem lucri ei cui facit quod debet, sed solum abstinet a damno eius. Sibi tamen facit utilitatem, inquantum spontanea et prompta voluntate facit illud quod debet, quod est virtuose agere. Unde dicitur Sap. VIII quod sapientia Dei sobrietatem et iustitiam docet, prudentiam et virtutem; quibus in vita nihil est utilius hominibus, scilicet virtuosis. Reply Obj. 1: When a man does what he ought, he brings no gain to the person to whom he does what he ought, but only abstains from doing him a harm. He does however profit himself, insofar as he does what he ought, spontaneously and readily, and this is to act virtuously. Hence it is written (Wis 8:7) that Divine wisdom teacheth temperance, and prudence, and justice, and fortitude, which are such things as men (i.e., virtuous men) can have nothing more profitable in life. Ad secundum dicendum quod duplex est necessitas. Una coactionis, et haec, quia repugnat voluntati, tollit rationem meriti. Alia autem est necessitas ex obligatione praecepti, sive ex necessitate finis, quando scilicet aliquis non potest consequi finem virtutis nisi hoc faciat. Et talis necessitas non excludit rationem meriti, inquantum aliquis hoc quod sic est necessarium voluntarie agit. Excludit tamen gloriam supererogationis, secundum illud I ad Cor. IX, si evangelizavero, non est mihi gloria, necessitas enim mihi incumbit. Reply Obj. 2: Necessity is twofold. One arises from constraint, and this removes merit, since it runs counter to the will. The other arises from the obligation of a command, or from the necessity of obtaining an end, when, to wit, a man is unable to achieve the end of virtue without doing some particular thing. The latter necessity does not remove merit, when a man does voluntarily that which is necessary in this way. It does however exclude the credit of supererogation, according to 1 Cor. 9:16, If I preach the Gospel, it is no glory to me, for a necessity lieth upon me. Ad tertium dicendum quod iustitia non consistit circa exteriores res quantum ad facere, quod pertinet ad artem, sed quantum ad hoc quod utitur eis ad alterum. Reply Obj. 3: Justice is concerned about external things, not by making them, which pertains to art, but by using them in our dealings with other men. Articulus 4 Article 4 Utrum iustitia sit in voluntate sicut in subiecto Whether justice is in the will as its subject? Ad quartum sic proceditur. Videtur quod iustitia non sit in voluntate sicut in subiecto. Iustitia enim quandoque veritas dicitur. Sed veritas non est voluntatis, sed intellectus. Ergo iustitia non est in voluntate sicut in subiecto. Objection 1: It would seem that justice is not in the will as its subject. For justice is sometimes called truth. But truth is not in the will, but in the intellect. Therefore justice is not in the will as its subject. Praeterea, iustitia est circa ea quae sunt ad alterum. Sed ordinare aliquid ad alterum est rationis. Iustitia ergo non est in voluntate sicut in subiecto, sed magis in ratione. Obj. 2: Further, justice is about our dealings with others. Now it belongs to the reason to direct one thing in relation to another. Therefore justice is not in the will as its subject but in the reason. Praeterea, iustitia non est virtus intellectualis, cum non ordinetur ad cognitionem. Unde relinquitur quod sit virtus moralis. Sed subiectum virtutis moralis est rationale per participationem, quod est irascibilis et concupiscibilis, ut patet per philosophum, in I Ethic. Ergo iustitia non est in voluntate sicut in subiecto, sed magis in irascibili et concupiscibili. Obj. 3: Further, justice is not an intellectual virtue, since it is not directed to knowledge; wherefore it follows that it is a moral virtue. Now the subject of moral virtue is the faculty which is rational by participation, viz. the irascible and the concupiscible, as the Philosopher declares (Ethic. i, 13). Therefore justice is not in the will as its subject, but in the irascible and concupiscible. Sed contra est quod Anselmus dicit, quod iustitia est rectitudo voluntatis propter se servata. On the contrary, Anselm says (De Verit. xii) that justice is rectitude of the will observed for its own sake. Respondeo dicendum quod illa potentia est subiectum virtutis ad cuius potentiae actum rectificandum virtus ordinatur. Iustitia autem non ordinatur ad dirigendum aliquem actum cognoscitivum, non enim dicimur iusti ex hoc quod recte aliquid cognoscimus. Et ideo subiectum iustitiae non est intellectus vel ratio, quae est potentia cognoscitiva. Sed quia iusti dicimur in hoc quod aliquid recte agimus; proximum autem principium actus est vis appetitiva; necesse est quod iustitia sit in aliqua vi appetitiva sicut in subiecto. I answer that, The subject of a virtue is the power whose act that virtue aims at rectifying. Now justice does not aim at directing an act of the cognitive power, for we are not said to be just through knowing something aright. Hence the subject of justice is not the intellect or reason which is a cognitive power. But since we are said to be just through doing something aright, and because the proximate principle of action is the appetitive power, justice must needs be in some appetitive power as its subject. Est autem duplex appetitus, scilicet voluntas, quae est in ratione; et appetitus sensitivus consequens apprehensionem sensus, qui dividitur per irascibilem et concupiscibilem, ut in primo habitum est. Reddere autem unicuique quod suum est non potest procedere ex appetitu sensitivo, quia apprehensio sensitiva non se extendit ad hoc quod considerare possit proportionem unius ad alterum, sed hoc est proprium rationis. Unde iustitia non potest esse sicut in subiecto in irascibili vel concupiscibili, sed solum in voluntate. Et ideo philosophus definit iustitiam per actum voluntatis, ut ex supradictis patet. Now the appetite is twofold; namely, the will which is in the reason and the sensitive appetite which follows on sensitive apprehension, and is divided into the irascible and the concupiscible, as stated in the First Part (Q. 81, A. 2). Again the act of rendering his due to each man cannot proceed from the sensitive appetite, because sensitive apprehension does not go so far as to be able to consider the relation of one thing to another; but this is proper to the reason. Therefore justice cannot be in the irascible or concupiscible as its subject, but only in the will: hence the Philosopher (Ethic. v, 1) defines justice by an act of the will, as may be seen above (A. 1). Ad primum ergo dicendum quod quia voluntas est appetitus rationalis, ideo rectitudo rationis, quae veritas dicitur, voluntati impressa, propter propinquitatem ad rationem, nomen retinet veritatis. Et inde est quod quandoque iustitia veritas vocatur. Reply Obj. 1: Since the will is the rational appetite, when the rectitude of the reason which is called truth is imprinted on the will on account of its nighness to the reason, this imprint retains the name of truth; and hence it is that justice sometimes goes by the name of truth. Ad secundum dicendum quod voluntas fertur in suum obiectum consequenter ad apprehensionem rationis. Et ideo, quia ratio ordinat in alterum, voluntas potest velle aliquid in ordine ad alterum, quod pertinet ad iustitiam. Reply Obj. 2: The will is borne towards its object consequently on the apprehension of reason: wherefore, since the reason directs one thing in relation to another, the will can will one thing in relation to another, and this belongs to justice. Ad tertium dicendum quod rationale per participationem non solum est irascibilis et concupiscibilis, sed omnino appetitivum, ut dicitur in I Ethic., quia omnis appetitus obedit rationi. Sub appetitivo autem comprehenditur voluntas. Et ideo voluntas potest esse subiectum virtutis moralis. Reply Obj. 3: Not only the irascible and concupiscible parts are rational by participation, but the entire appetitive faculty, as stated in Ethic. i, 13, because all appetite is subject to reason. Now the will is contained in the appetitive faculty, wherefore it can be the subject of moral virtue. Articulus 5 Article 5 Utrum iustitia sit virtus generalis Whether justice is a general virtue? Ad quintum sic proceditur. Videtur quod iustitia non sit virtus generalis. Iustitia enim condividitur aliis virtutibus, ut patet Sap. VIII, sobrietatem et iustitiam docet, prudentiam et virtutem. Sed generale non condividitur seu connumeratur speciebus sub illo generali contentis. Ergo iustitia non est virtus generalis. Objection 1: It would seem that justice is not a general virtue. For justice is specified with the other virtues, according to Wis. 8:7, She teacheth temperance and prudence, and justice, and fortitude. Now the general is not specified or reckoned together with the species contained under the same general. Therefore justice is not a general virtue. Praeterea, sicut iustitia ponitur virtus cardinalis, ita etiam temperantia et fortitudo. Sed temperantia vel fortitudo non ponitur virtus generalis. Ergo neque iustitia debet aliquo modo poni virtus generalis. Obj. 2: Further, as justice is accounted a cardinal virtue, so are temperance and fortitude. Now neither temperance nor fortitude is reckoned to be a general virtue. Therefore neither should justice in any way be reckoned a general virtue. Praeterea, iustitia est semper ad alterum, ut supra dictum est. Sed peccatum quod est in proximum non est peccatum generale, sed dividitur contra peccatum quo peccat homo contra seipsum. Ergo etiam neque iustitia est virtus generalis. Obj. 3: Further, justice is always towards others, as stated above (A. 2). But a sin committed against one’s neighbor cannot be a general sin, because it is condivided with sin committed against oneself. Therefore neither is justice a general virtue. Sed contra est quod philosophus dicit, in V Ethic., quod iustitia est omnis virtus. On the contrary, The Philosopher says (Ethic. v, 1) that justice is every virtue. Respondeo dicendum quod iustitia, sicut dictum est, ordinat hominem in comparatione ad alium. Quod quidem potest esse dupliciter. Uno modo, ad alium singulariter consideratum. Alio modo, ad alium in communi, secundum scilicet quod ille qui servit alicui communitati servit omnibus hominibus qui sub communitate illa continentur. Ad utrumque igitur se potest habere iustitia secundum propriam rationem. Manifestum est autem quod omnes qui sub communitate aliqua continentur comparantur ad communitatem sicut partes ad totum. Pars autem id quod est totius est, unde et quodlibet bonum partis est ordinabile in bonum totius. Secundum hoc igitur bonum cuiuslibet virtutis, sive ordinantis aliquem hominem ad seipsum sive ordinantis ipsum ad aliquas alias personas singulares, est referibile ad bonum commune, ad quod ordinat iustitia. Et secundum hoc actus omnium virtutum possunt ad iustitiam pertinere, secundum quod ordinat hominem ad bonum commune. Et quantum ad hoc iustitia dicitur virtus generalis. Et quia ad legem pertinet ordinare in bonum commune, ut supra habitum est, inde est quod talis iustitia, praedicto modo generalis, dicitur iustitia legalis, quia scilicet per eam homo concordat legi ordinanti actus omnium virtutum in bonum commune. I answer that, Justice, as stated above (A. 2) directs man in his relations with other men. Now this may happen in two ways: first as regards his relation with individuals, second as regards his relations with others in general, insofar as a man who serves a community, serves all those who are included in that community. Accordingly justice in its proper acceptation can be directed to another in both these senses. Now it is evident that all who are included in a community, stand in relation to that community as parts to a whole; while a part, as such, belongs to a whole, so that whatever is the good of a part can be directed to the good of the whole. It follows therefore that the good of any virtue, whether such virtue direct man in relation to himself, or in relation to certain other individual persons, is referable to the common good, to which justice directs: so that all acts of virtue can pertain to justice, insofar as it directs man to the common good. It is in this sense that justice is called a general virtue. And since it belongs to the law to direct to the common good, as stated above (I-II, Q. 90, A. 2), it follows that the justice which is in this way styled general, is called legal justice, because thereby man is in harmony with the law which directs the acts of all the virtues to the common good. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod iustitia condividitur seu connumeratur aliis virtutibus non inquantum est generalis, sed inquantum est specialis virtus, ut infra dicetur. Reply Obj. 1: Justice is specified or enumerated with the other virtues, not as a general but as a special virtue, as we shall state further on (AA. 7, 12). Ad secundum dicendum quod temperantia et fortitudo sunt in appetitu sensitivo, idest in concupiscibili et irascibili. Huiusmodi autem vires sunt appetitivae quorundam bonorum particularium, sicut et sensus est particularium cognoscitivus. Sed iustitia est sicut in subiecto in appetitu intellectivo, qui potest esse universalis boni, cuius intellectus est apprehensivus. Et ideo iustitia magis potest esse virtus generalis quam temperantia vel fortitudo. Reply Obj. 2: Temperance and fortitude are in the sensitive appetite, viz. in the concupiscible and irascible. Now these powers are appetitive of certain particular goods, even as the senses are cognitive of particulars. On the other hand justice is in the intellective appetite as its subject, which can have the universal good as its object, knowledge whereof belongs to the intellect. Hence justice can be a general virtue rather than temperance or fortitude. Ad tertium dicendum quod illa quae sunt ad seipsum sunt ordinabilia ad alterum, praecipue quantum ad bonum commune. Unde et iustitia legalis, secundum quod ordinat ad bonum commune, potest dici virtus generalis; et eadem ratione iniustitia potest dici peccatum commune, unde dicitur I Ioan. III quod omne peccatum est iniquitas. Reply Obj. 3: Things referable to oneself are referable to another, especially in regard to the common good. Wherefore legal justice, insofar as it directs to the common good, may be called a general virtue: and in like manner injustice may be called a general sin; hence it is written (1 John 3:4) that all sin is iniquity.