Quaestio 60 Question 60 De iudicio Judgment Deinde considerandum est de iudicio. Et circa hoc quaeruntur sex. In due sequence we must consider judgment, under which head there are six points of inquiry: Primo, utrum iudicium sit actus iustitiae. (1) Whether judgment is an act of justice? Secundo, utrum sit licitum iudicare. (2) Whether it is lawful to judge? Tertio, utrum per suspiciones sit iudicandum. (3) Whether judgment should be based on suspicions? Quarto, utrum dubia sint in meliorem partem interpretanda. (4) Whether doubts should be interpreted favorably? Quinto, utrum iudicium semper sit secundum leges scriptas proferendum. (5) Whether judgment should always be given according to the written law? Sexto, utrum iudicium per usurpationem pervertatur. (6) Whether judgment is perverted by being usurped? Articulus 1 Article 1 Utrum iudicium sit actus iustitiae Whether judgment is an act of justice? Ad primum sic proceditur. Videtur quod iudicium non sit actus iustitiae. Dicit enim philosophus, in I Ethic., quod unusquisque bene iudicat quae cognoscit, et sic iudicium ad vim cognoscitivam pertinere videtur. Vis autem cognoscitiva per prudentiam perficitur. Ergo iudicium magis pertinet ad prudentiam quam ad iustitiam, quae est in voluntate, ut dictum est. Objection 1: It would seem that judgment is not an act of justice. The Philosopher says (Ethic. i, 3) that everyone judges well of what he knows, so that judgment would seem to belong to the cognitive faculty. Now the cognitive faculty is perfected by prudence. Therefore judgment belongs to prudence rather than to justice, which is in the will, as stated above (Q. 58, A. 4). Praeterea, apostolus dicit, I ad Cor. II, spiritualis iudicat omnia. Sed homo maxime efficitur spiritualis per virtutem caritatis, quae diffunditur in cordibus nostris per spiritum sanctum, qui datus est nobis, ut dicitur Rom. V. Ergo iudicium magis pertinet ad caritatem quam ad iustitiam. Obj. 2: Further, the Apostle says (1 Cor 2:15): The spiritual man judgeth all things. Now man is made spiritual chiefly by the virtue of charity, which is poured forth in our hearts by the Holy Spirit Who is given to us (Rom 5:5). Therefore judgment belongs to charity rather than to justice. Praeterea, ad unamquamque virtutem pertinet rectum iudicium circa propriam materiam, quia virtuosus in singulis est regula et mensura, secundum philosophum, in libro Ethic. Non ergo iudicium magis pertinet ad iustitiam quam ad alias virtutes morales. Obj. 3: Further, it belongs to every virtue to judge aright of its proper matter, because the virtuous man is the rule and measure in everything, according to the Philosopher (Ethic. iii, 4). Therefore judgment does not belong to justice any more than to the other moral virtues. Praeterea, iudicium videtur ad solos iudices pertinere. Actus autem iustitiae invenitur in omnibus iustis. Cum igitur non soli iudices sint iusti, videtur quod iudicium non sit actus proprius iustitiae. Obj. 4: Further, judgment would seem to belong only to judges. But the act of justice is to be found in every just man. Since then judges are not the only just men, it seems that judgment is not the proper act of justice. Sed contra est quod in Psalm. dicitur, quoadusque iustitia convertatur in iudicium. On the contrary, It is written (Ps 93:15): Until justice be turned into judgment. Respondeo dicendum quod iudicium proprie nominat actum iudicis inquantum est iudex. Iudex autem dicitur quasi ius dicens. Ius autem est obiectum iustitiae, ut supra habitum est. Et ideo iudicium importat, secundum primam nominis impositionem, definitionem vel determinationem iusti sive iuris. Quod autem aliquis bene definiat aliquid in operibus virtuosis proprie procedit ex habitu virtutis, sicut castus recte determinat ea quae pertinent ad castitatem. Et ideo iudicium, quod importat rectam determinationem eius quod est iustum, proprie pertinet ad iustitiam. Propter quod philosophus dicit, in V Ethic., quod homines ad iudicem confugiunt sicut ad quandam iustitiam animatam. I answer that, Judgment properly denotes the act of a judge as such. Now a judge (judex) is so called because he asserts the right (jus dicens) and right is the object of justice, as stated above (Q. 57, A. 1). Consequently the original meaning of the word judgment is a statement or decision of the just or right. Now to decide rightly about virtuous deeds proceeds, properly speaking, from the virtuous habit; thus a chaste person decides rightly about matters relating to chastity. Therefore judgment, which denotes a right decision about what is just, belongs properly to justice. For this reason the Philosopher says (Ethic. v, 4) that men have recourse to a judge as to one who is the personification of justice. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod nomen iudicii, quod secundum primam impositionem significat rectam determinationem iustorum, ampliatum est ad significandum rectam determinationem in quibuscumque rebus, tam in speculativis quam in practicis. In omnibus tamen ad rectum iudicium duo requiruntur. Quorum unum est ipsa virtus proferens iudicium. Et sic iudicium est actus rationis, dicere enim vel definire aliquid rationis est. Aliud autem est dispositio iudicantis, ex qua habet idoneitatem ad recte iudicandum. Et sic in his quae ad iustitiam pertinent iudicium procedit ex iustitia, sicut et in his quae ad fortitudinem pertinent ex fortitudine. Sic ergo iudicium est quidam actus iustitiae sicut inclinantis ad recte iudicandum, prudentiae autem sicut iudicium proferentis. Unde et synesis, ad prudentiam pertinens, dicitur bene iudicativa, ut supra habitum est. Reply Obj. 1: The word judgment, from its original meaning of a right decision about what is just, has been extended to signify a right decision in any matter whether speculative or practical. Now a right judgment in any matter requires two things. The first is the virtue itself that pronounces judgment: and in this way, judgment is an act of reason, because it belongs to the reason to pronounce or define. The other is the disposition of the one who judges, on which depends his aptness for judging aright. In this way, in matters of justice, judgment proceeds from justice, even as in matters of fortitude, it proceeds from fortitude. Accordingly judgment is an act of justice insofar as justice inclines one to judge aright, and of prudence insofar as prudence pronounces judgment: wherefore synesis which belongs to prudence is said to judge rightly, as stated above (Q. 51, A. 3). Ad secundum dicendum quod homo spiritualis ex habitu caritatis habet inclinationem ad recte iudicandum de omnibus secundum regulas divinas, ex quibus iudicium per donum sapientiae pronuntiat, sicut iustus per virtutem prudentiae pronuntiat iudicium ex regulis iuris. Reply Obj. 2: The spiritual man, by reason of the habit of charity, has an inclination to judge aright of all things according to the Divine rules; and it is in conformity with these that he pronounces judgment through the gift of wisdom: even as the just man pronounces judgment through the virtue of prudence conformably with the ruling of the law. Ad tertium dicendum quod aliae virtutes ordinant hominem in seipso, sed iustitia ordinat hominem ad alium, ut ex dictis patet. Homo autem est dominus eorum quae ad ipsum pertinent, non autem est dominus eorum quae ad alium pertinent. Et ideo in his quae sunt secundum alias virtutes non requiritur nisi iudicium virtuosi, extenso tamen nomine iudicii, ut dictum est. Sed in his quae pertinent ad iustitiam requiritur ulterius iudicium alicuius superioris, qui utrumque valeat arguere, et ponere manum suam in ambobus. Et propter hoc iudicium specialius pertinet ad iustitiam quam ad aliquam aliam virtutem. Reply Obj. 3: The other virtues regulate man in himself, whereas justice regulates man in his dealings with others, as shown above (Q. 58, A. 2). Now man is master in things concerning himself, but not in matters relating to others. Consequently where the other virtues are in question, there is no need for judgment other than that of a virtuous man, taking judgment in its broader sense, as explained above (ad 1). But in matters of justice, there is further need for the judgment of a superior, who is able to reprove both, and to put his hand between both. Hence judgment belongs more specifically to justice than to any other virtue. Ad quartum dicendum quod iustitia in principe quidem est sicut virtus architectonica, quasi imperans et praecipiens quod iustum est, in subditis autem est tanquam virtus executiva et ministrans. Et ideo iudicium, quod importat definitionem iusti, pertinet ad iustitiam secundum quod est principaliori modo in praesidente. Reply Obj. 4: Justice is in the sovereign as a master-virtue, commanding and prescribing what is just; while it is in the subjects as an executive and administrative virtue. Hence judgment, which denotes a decision of what is just, belongs to justice, considered as existing chiefly in one who has authority. Articulus 2 Article 2 Utrum sit licitum iudicare Whether it is lawful to judge? Ad secundum sic proceditur. Videtur quod non sit licitum iudicare. Non enim infligitur poena nisi pro illicito. Sed iudicantibus imminet poena, quam non iudicantes effugiunt, secundum illud Matth. VII, nolite iudicare, ut non iudicemini. Ergo iudicare est illicitum. Objection 1: It would seem unlawful to judge. For nothing is punished except what is unlawful. Now those who judge are threatened with punishment, which those who judge not will escape, according to Matt. 7:1, Judge not, and ye shall not be judged. Therefore it is unlawful to judge. Praeterea, Rom. XIV dicitur, tu quis es, qui iudicas alienum servum? Suo domino stat aut cadit. Dominus autem omnium Deus est. Ergo nulli homini licet iudicare. Obj. 2: Further, it is written (Rom 14:4): Who art thou that judgest another man’s servant? To his own lord he standeth or falleth. Now God is the Lord of all. Therefore to no man is it lawful to judge. Praeterea, nullus homo est sine peccato, secundum illud I Ioan. I, si dixerimus quia peccatum non habemus, nosipsos seducimus. Sed peccanti non licet iudicare, secundum illud Rom. II, inexcusabilis es, o homo omnis qui iudicas, in quo enim alterum iudicas, teipsum condemnas; eadem enim agis quae iudicas. Ergo nulli est licitum iudicare. Obj. 3: Further, no man is sinless, according to 1 John 1:8, If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves. Now it is unlawful for a sinner to judge, according to Rom. 2:1, Thou art inexcusable, O man, whosoever thou art, that judgest; for wherein thou judgest another, thou condemnest thyself, for thou dost the same things which thou judgest. Therefore to no man is it lawful to judge. Sed contra est quod dicitur Deut. XVI, iudices et magistros constitues in omnibus portis tuis, ut iudicent populum iusto iudicio. On the contrary, It is written (Deut 16:18): Thou shalt appoint judges and magistrates in all thy gates . . . that they may judge the people with just judgment. Respondeo dicendum quod iudicium intantum est licitum inquantum est iustitiae actus. Sicut autem ex praedictis patet, ad hoc quod iudicium sit actus iustitiae tria requiruntur, primo quidem, ut procedat ex inclinatione iustitiae; secundo, quod procedat ex auctoritate praesidentis; tertio, quod proferatur secundum rectam rationem prudentiae. Quodcumque autem horum defuerit, est iudicium vitiosum et illicitum. Uno quidem modo, quando est contra rectitudinem iustitiae, et sic dicitur iudicium perversum vel iniustum. Alio modo, quando homo iudicat in his in quibus non habet auctoritatem, et sic dicitur iudicium usurpatum. Tertio modo, quando deest certitudo rationis, puta cum aliquis de his iudicat quae sunt dubia vel occulta per aliquas leves coniecturas, et sic dicitur iudicium suspiciosum vel temerarium. I answer that, Judgment is lawful insofar as it is an act of justice. Now it follows from what has been stated above (A. 1, ad 1, 3) that three conditions are requisite for a judgment to be an act of justice: first, that it proceed from the inclination of justice; second, that it come from one who is in authority; third, that it be pronounced according to the right ruling of prudence. If any one of these be lacking, the judgment will be faulty and unlawful. First, when it is contrary to the rectitude of justice, and then it is called perverted or unjust: second, when a man judges about matters wherein he has no authority, and this is called judgment by usurpation: third, when the reason lacks certainty, as when a man, without any solid motive, forms a judgment on some doubtful or hidden matter, and then it is called judgment by suspicion or rash judgment. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod dominus ibi prohibet iudicium temerarium, quod est de intentione cordis vel de aliis incertis, ut Augustinus dicit, in libro de Serm. Dom. in monte. Vel prohibet ibi iudicium de rebus divinis, de quibus, cum sint supra nos, non debemus iudicare, sed simpliciter ea credere, ut Hilarius dicit, super Matth. Vel prohibet iudicium quod non sit ex benevolentia, sed ex animi amaritudine, ut Chrysostomus dicit. Reply Obj. 1: In these words our Lord forbids rash judgment which is about the inward intention, or other uncertain things, as Augustine states (De Serm. Dom. in Monte ii, 18). Or else He forbids judgment about Divine things, which we ought not to judge, but simply believe, since they are above us, as Hilary declares in his commentary on Matt. 5. Or again according to Chrysostom, He forbids the judgment which proceeds not from benevolence but from bitterness of heart. Ad secundum dicendum quod iudex constituitur ut minister Dei. Unde dicitur Deut. I, quod iustum est iudicate; et postea subdit, quia Dei est iudicium. Reply Obj. 2: A judge is appointed as God’s servant; wherefore it is written (Deut 1:16): Judge that which is just, and further on (Deut 1:17), because it is the judgment of God. Ad tertium dicendum quod illi qui sunt in gravibus peccatis non debent iudicare eos qui sunt in eisdem peccatis vel minoribus, ut Chrysostomus dicit, super illud Matth. VII, nolite iudicare. Et praecipue est hoc intelligendum quando illa peccata sunt publica, quia ex hoc generatur scandalum in cordibus aliorum. Si autem non sunt publica, sed occulta, et necessitas iudicandi immineat propter officium, potest cum humilitate et timore vel arguere vel iudicare. Unde Augustinus dicit, in libro de Serm. Dom. in monte, si invenerimus nos in eodem vitio esse, congemiscamus, et ad pariter conandum invitemus. Nec tamen propter hoc homo sic seipsum condemnat ut novum condemnationis meritum sibi acquirat, sed quia, condemnans alium, ostendit se similiter condemnabilem esse, propter idem peccatum vel simile. Reply Obj. 3: Those who stand guilty of grievous sins should not judge those who are guilty of the same or lesser sins, as Chrysostom says on the words of Matt. 7:1, Judge not. Above all does this hold when such sins are public, because there would be an occasion of scandal arising in the hearts of others. If however they are not public but hidden, and there be an urgent necessity for the judge to pronounce judgment, because it is his duty, he can reprove or judge with humility and fear. Hence Augustine says (De Serm. Dom. in Monte ii, 19): If we find that we are guilty of the same sin as another man, we should groan together with him, and invite him to strive against it together with us. And yet it is not through acting thus that a man condemns himself so as to deserve to be condemned once again, but when, in condemning another, he shows himself to be equally deserving of condemnation on account of another or a like sin. Articulus 3 Article 3 Utrum iudicium ex suspicione procedens sit illicitum Whether it is unlawful to form a judgment from suspicions? Ad tertium sic proceditur. Videtur quod iudicium ex suspicione procedens non sit illicitum. Suspicio enim videtur esse opinio incerta de aliquo malo, unde et philosophus, in VI Ethic., ponit quod suspicio se habet et ad verum et ad falsum. Sed de singularibus contingentibus non potest haberi opinio nisi incerta. Cum igitur iudicium humanum sit circa humanos actus, qui sunt in singularibus et contingentibus, videtur quod nullum iudicium esset licitum, si ex suspicione iudicare non liceret. Objection 1: It would seem that it is not unlawful to form a judgment from suspicions. For suspicion is seemingly an uncertain opinion about an evil, wherefore the Philosopher states (Ethic. vi, 3) that suspicion is about both the true and the false. Now it is impossible to have any but an uncertain opinion about contingent singulars. Since then human judgment is about human acts, which are about singular and contingent matters, it seems that no judgment would be lawful, if it were not lawful to judge from suspicions. Praeterea, per iudicium illicitum fit aliqua iniuria proximo. Sed suspicio mala in sola opinione hominis consistit, et sic non videtur ad iniuriam alterius pertinere. Ergo suspicionis iudicium non est illicitum. Obj. 2: Further, a man does his neighbor an injury by judging him unlawfully. But an evil suspicion consists in nothing more than a man’s opinion, and consequently does not seem to pertain to the injury of another man. Therefore judgment based on suspicion is not unlawful. Praeterea, si sit illicitum, oportet quod ad iniustitiam reducatur, quia iudicium est actus iustitiae, ut dictum est. Sed iniustitia ex suo genere semper est peccatum mortale, ut supra habitum est. Ergo suspicionis iudicium semper esset peccatum mortale, si esset illicitum. Sed hoc est falsum, quia suspiciones vitare non possumus, ut dicit Glossa Augustini super illud I ad Cor. IV, nolite ante tempus iudicare. Ergo iudicium suspiciosum non videtur esse illicitum. Obj. 3: Further, if it is unlawful, it must needs be reducible to an injustice, since judgment is an act of justice, as stated above (A. 1). Now an injustice is always a mortal sin according to its genus, as stated above (Q. 59, A. 4). Therefore a judgment based on suspicion would always be a mortal sin, if it were unlawful. But this is false, because we cannot avoid suspicions, according to a gloss of Augustine (Tract. xc in Joan.) on 1 Cor. 4:5, Judge not before the time. Therefore a judgment based on suspicion would seem not to be unlawful.