Ad primum ergo dicendum quod potest contingere quod ille qui in meliorem partem interpretatur, frequentius fallitur. Sed melius est quod aliquis frequenter fallatur habens bonam opinionem de aliquo malo homine, quam quod rarius fallatur habens malam opinionem de aliquo bono, quia ex hoc fit iniuria alicui, non autem ex primo. Reply Obj. 1: He who interprets doubtful matters for the best, may happen to be deceived more often than not; yet it is better to err frequently through thinking well of a wicked man, than to err less frequently through having an evil opinion of a good man, because in the latter case an injury is inflicted, but not in the former. Ad secundum dicendum quod aliud est iudicare de rebus, et aliud de hominibus. In iudicio enim quo de rebus iudicamus non attenditur bonum vel malum ex parte ipsius rei de qua iudicamus, cui nihil nocet qualitercumque iudicemus de ipsa, sed attenditur ibi solum bonum iudicantis si vere iudicet, vel malum si falso; quia verum est bonum intellectus, falsum autem est malum ipsius, ut dicitur in VI Ethic. Et ideo unusquisque debet niti ad hoc quod de rebus iudicet secundum quod sunt. Sed in iudicio quo iudicamus de hominibus praecipue attenditur bonum et malum ex parte eius de quo iudicatur, qui in hoc ipso honorabilis habetur quod bonus iudicatur, et contemptibilis si iudicetur malus. Et ideo ad hoc potius tendere debemus in tali iudicio quod hominem iudicemus bonum, nisi manifesta ratio in contrarium appareat. Ipsi autem homini iudicanti, falsum iudicium quo bene iudicat de alio non pertinet ad malum intellectus ipsius, sicut nec ad eius perfectionem pertinet secundum se cognoscere veritatem singularium contingentium, sed magis pertinet ad bonum affectum. Reply Obj. 2: It is one thing to judge of things and another to judge of men. For when we judge of things, there is no question of the good or evil of the thing about which we are judging, since it will take no harm no matter what kind of judgment we form about it; but there is question of the good of the person who judges, if he judge truly, and of his evil if he judge falsely because the true is the good of the intellect, and the false is its evil, as stated in Ethic. vi, 2, wherefore everyone should strive to make his judgment accord with things as they are. On the other hand when we judge of men, the good and evil in our judgment is considered chiefly on the part of the person about whom judgment is being formed; for he is deemed worthy of honor from the very fact that he is judged to be good, and deserving of contempt if he is judged to be evil. For this reason we ought, in this kind of judgment, to aim at judging a man good, unless there is evident proof of the contrary. And though we may judge falsely, our judgment in thinking well of another pertains to our good feeling and not to the evil of the intellect, even as neither does it pertain to the intellect’s perfection to know the truth of contingent singulars in themselves. Ad tertium dicendum quod interpretari aliquid in deteriorem vel meliorem partem contingit dupliciter. Uno modo, per quandam suppositionem. Et sic, cum debemus aliquibus malis adhibere remedium, sive nostris sive alienis, expedit ad hoc ut securius remedium apponatur, quod supponatur id quod deterius est, quia remedium quod est efficax contra maius malum, multo magis est efficax contra minus malum. Alio modo interpretamur aliquid in bonum vel malum definiendo sive determinando. Et sic in rerum iudicio debet aliquis niti ad hoc ut interpretetur unumquodque secundum quod est, in iudicio autem personarum, ut interpretetur in melius, sicut dictum est. Reply Obj. 3: One may interpret something for the worst or for the best in two ways. First, by a kind of supposition; and thus, when we have to apply a remedy to some evil, whether our own or another’s, in order for the remedy to be applied with greater certainty of a cure, it is expedient to take the worst for granted, since if a remedy be efficacious against a worse evil, much more is it efficacious against a lesser evil. Second we may interpret something for the best or for the worst, by deciding or determining, and in this case when judging of things we should try to interpret each thing according as it is, and when judging of persons, to interpret things for the best as stated above. Articulus 5 Article 5 Utrum sit semper secundum leges scriptas iudicandum Whether we should always judge according to the written law? Ad quintum sic proceditur. Videtur quod non sit semper secundum leges scriptas iudicandum. Semper enim vitandum est iniustum iudicium. Sed quandoque leges scriptae iniustitiam continent, secundum illud Isaiae X, vae qui condunt leges iniquas, et scribentes iniustitias scripserunt. Ergo non semper est secundum leges scriptas iudicandum. Objection 1: It would seem that we ought not always to judge according to the written law. For we ought always to avoid judging unjustly. But written laws sometimes contain injustice, according to Isa. 10:1, Woe to them that make wicked laws, and when they write, write injustice. Therefore we ought not always to judge according to the written law. Praeterea, iudicium oportet esse de singularibus eventibus. Sed nulla lex scripta potest omnes singulares eventus comprehendere, ut patet per philosophum, in V Ethic. Ergo videtur quod non semper sit secundum leges scriptas iudicandum. Obj. 2: Further, judgment has to be formed about individual happenings. But no written law can cover each and every individual happening, as the Philosopher declares (Ethic. v, 10). Therefore it seems that we are not always bound to judge according to the written law. Praeterea, lex ad hoc scribitur ut sententia legislatoris manifestetur. Sed quandoque contingit quod si ipse lator legis praesens esset, aliter iudicaret. Ergo non est semper secundum legem scriptam iudicandum. Obj. 3: Further, a law is written in order that the lawgiver’s intention may be made clear. But it happens sometimes that even if the lawgiver himself were present he would judge otherwise. Therefore we ought not always to judge according to the written law. Sed contra est quod Augustinus dicit, in libro de vera Relig., in istis temporalibus legibus, quanquam de his homines iudicent cum eas instituerint, tamen cum fuerint institutae et firmatae, non licebit iudicibus de ipsis iudicare, sed secundum ipsas. On the contrary, Augustine says (De Vera Relig. xxxi): In these earthly laws, though men judge about them when they are making them, when once they are established and passed, the judges may judge no longer of them, but according to them. Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut dictum est, iudicium nihil est aliud nisi quaedam definitio vel determinatio eius quod iustum est. Fit autem aliquid iustum dupliciter, uno modo, ex ipsa natura rei, quod dicitur ius naturale; alio modo, ex quodam condicto inter homines, quod dicitur ius positivum, ut supra habitum est. Leges autem scribuntur ad utriusque iuris declarationem, aliter tamen et aliter. Nam legis Scriptura ius quidem naturale continet, sed non instituit, non enim habet robur ex lege, sed ex natura. Ius autem positivum Scriptura legis et continet et instituit, dans ei auctoritatis robur. I answer that, As stated above (A. 1), judgment is nothing else but a decision or determination of what is just. Now a thing becomes just in two ways: first by the very nature of the case, and this is called natural right, second by some agreement between men, and this is called positive right, as stated above (Q. 57, A. 2). Now laws are written for the purpose of manifesting both these rights, but in different ways. For the written law does indeed contain natural right, but it does not establish it, for the latter derives its force, not from the law but from nature: whereas the written law both contains positive right, and establishes it by giving it force of authority. Et ideo necesse est quod iudicium fiat secundum legis Scripturam, alioquin iudicium deficeret vel a iusto naturali, vel a iusto positivo. Hence it is necessary to judge according to the written law, else judgment would fall short either of the natural or of the positive right. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod lex scripta, sicut non dat robur iuri naturali, ita nec potest eius robur minuere vel auferre, quia nec voluntas hominis potest immutare naturam. Et ideo si Scriptura legis contineat aliquid contra ius naturale, iniusta est, nec habet vim obligandi, ibi enim ius positivum locum habet ubi quantum ad ius naturale nihil differt utrum sic vel aliter fiat, sicut supra habitum est. Et ideo nec tales Scripturae leges dicuntur, sed potius legis corruptiones, ut supra dictum est. Et ideo secundum eas non est iudicandum. Reply Obj. 1: Just as the written law does not give force to the natural right, so neither can it diminish or annul its force, because neither can man’s will change nature. Hence if the written law contains anything contrary to the natural right, it is unjust and has no binding force. For positive right has no place except where it matters not, according to the natural right, whether a thing be done in one way or in another; as stated above (Q. 57, A. 2, ad 2). Wherefore such documents are to be called, not laws, but rather corruptions of law, as stated above (I-II, Q. 95, A. 2): and consequently judgment should not be delivered according to them. Ad secundum dicendum quod sicut leges iniquae secundum se contrariantur iuri naturali, vel semper vel ut in pluribus; ita etiam leges quae sunt recte positae in aliquibus casibus deficiunt, in quibus si servarentur, esset contra ius naturale. Et ideo in talibus non est secundum litteram legis iudicandum, sed recurrendum ad aequitatem, quam intendit legislator. Unde iurisperitus dicit, nulla ratio iuris aut aequitatis benignitas patitur ut quae salubriter pro utilitate hominum introducuntur, ea nos duriore interpretatione contra ipsorum commodum producamus ad severitatem. Et in talibus etiam legislator aliter iudicaret, et, si considerasset, lege determinasset. Reply Obj. 2: Even as unjust laws by their very nature are, either always or for the most part, contrary to the natural right, so too laws that are rightly established, fail in some cases, when if they were observed they would be contrary to the natural right. Wherefore in such cases judgment should be delivered, not according to the letter of the law, but according to equity which the lawgiver has in view. Hence the jurist says: By no reason of law, or favor of equity, is it allowable for us to interpret harshly, and render burdensome, those useful measures which have been enacted for the welfare of man. In such cases even the lawgiver himself would decide otherwise; and if he had foreseen the case, he might have provided for it by law. Et per hoc patet responsio ad tertium. This suffices for the Reply to the Third Objection. Articulus 6 Article 6 Utrum iudicium per usurpationem reddatur perversum Whether judgment is rendered perverse by being usurped? Ad sextum sic proceditur. Videtur quod iudicium per usurpationem non reddatur perversum. Iustitia enim est quaedam rectitudo in agendis. Sed nihil deperit veritati a quocumque dicatur, sed a quocumque est accipienda. Ergo etiam nihil deperit iustitiae, a quocumque iustum determinetur, quod pertinet ad rationem iudicii. Objection 1: It would seem that judgment is not rendered perverse by being usurped. For justice is rectitude in matters of action. Now truth is not impaired, no matter who tells it, but it may suffer from the person who ought to accept it. Therefore again justice loses nothing, no matter who declares what is just, and this is what is meant by judgment. Praeterea, peccata punire ad iudicium pertinet. Sed aliqui laudabiliter leguntur peccata punisse qui tamen auctoritatem non habebant super illos quos puniebant, sicut Moyses occidendo Aegyptium, ut habetur Exod. II; et Phinees, filius Eleazari, Zambri, filium Salomi, ut legitur Num. XXV, et reputatum est ei ad iustitiam, ut dicitur in Psalm. Ergo usurpatio iudicii non pertinet ad iniustitiam. Obj. 2: Further, it belongs to judgment to punish sins. Now it is related to the praise of some that they punished sins without having authority over those whom they punished; such as Moses in slaying the Egyptian (Exod 2:12), and Phinees the son of Eleazar in slaying Zambri the son of Salu (Num 25:7–14), and it was reputed to him unto justice (Ps 105:31). Therefore usurpation of judgment pertains not to injustice. Praeterea, potestas spiritualis distinguitur a temporali. Sed quandoque praelati habentes spiritualem potestatem intromittunt se de his quae pertinent ad potestatem saecularem. Ergo usurpatum iudicium non est illicitum. Obj. 3: Further, spiritual power is distinct from temporal. Now prelates having spiritual power sometimes interfere in matters concerning the secular power. Therefore usurped judgment is not unlawful. Praeterea, sicut ad recte iudicandum requiritur auctoritas, ita etiam et iustitia iudicantis et scientia, ut ex supradictis patet. Sed non dicitur iudicium esse iniustum si aliquis iudicet non habens habitum iustitiae, vel non habens scientiam iuris. Ergo neque etiam iudicium usurpatum, quod fit per defectum auctoritatis, semper erit iniustum. Obj. 4: Further, even as the judge requires authority in order to judge aright, so also does he need justice and knowledge, as shown above (A. 1, ad 1, 3; A. 2). But a judgment is not described as unjust, if he who judges lacks the habit of justice or the knowledge of the law. Neither therefore is it always unjust to judge by usurpation, i.e., without authority. Sed contra est quod dicitur Rom. XIV, tu quis es, qui iudicas alienum servum? On the contrary, It is written (Rom 14:4): Who art thou that judgest another man’s servant? Respondeo dicendum quod, cum iudicium sit ferendum secundum leges scriptas, ut dictum est, ille qui iudicium fert legis dictum quodammodo interpretatur, applicando ipsum ad particulare negotium. Cum autem eiusdem auctoritatis sit legem interpretari et legem condere, sicut lex condi non potest nisi publica auctoritate, ita nec iudicium ferri potest nisi publica auctoritate, quae quidem se extendit ad eos qui communitati subduntur. Et ideo sicut iniustum esset ut aliquis constringeret alium ad legem servandam quae non esset publica auctoritate sancita, ita etiam iniustum est si aliquis aliquem compellat ferre iudicium quod publica auctoritate non fertur. I answer that, Since judgment should be pronounced according to the written law, as stated above (A. 5), he that pronounces judgment, interprets, in a way, the letter of the law, by applying it to some particular case. Now since it belongs to the same authority to interpret and to make a law, just as a law cannot be made save by public authority, so neither can a judgment be pronounced except by public authority, which extends over those who are subject to the community. Wherefore even as it would be unjust for one man to force another to observe a law that was not approved by public authority, so too it is unjust, if a man compels another to submit to a judgment that is pronounced by other than the public authority. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod pronuntiatio veritatis non importat compulsionem ad hoc quod suscipiatur, sed liberum est unicuique eam recipere vel non recipere prout vult. Sed iudicium importat quandam impulsionem. Et ideo iniustum est quod aliquis iudicetur ab eo qui publicam auctoritatem non habet. Reply Obj. 1: When the truth is declared there is no obligation to accept it, and each one is free to receive it or not, as he wishes. On the other hand judgment implies an obligation, wherefore it is unjust for anyone to be judged by one who has no public authority. Ad secundum dicendum quod Moyses videtur Aegyptium occidisse quasi ex inspiratione divina auctoritatem adeptus, ut videtur per hoc quod dicitur Act. VII, quod, percusso Aegyptio, aestimabat Moyses intelligere fratres suos quoniam dominus per manum ipsius daret salutem Israel. Vel potest dici quod Moyses occidit Aegyptium defendendo eum qui iniuriam patiebatur cum moderamine inculpatae tutelae. Unde Ambrosius dicit, in libro de Offic., quod qui non repellit iniuriam a socio cum potest, tam est in vitio quam ille qui facit; et inducit exemplum Moysi. Vel potest dici, sicut dicit Augustinus, in quaestionibus Exod., quod sicut terra, ante utilia semina, herbarum inutilium fertilitate laudatur; sic illud Moysi factum vitiosum quidem fuit, sed magnae fertilitatis signum gerebat, inquantum scilicet erat signum virtutis eius qua populum liberaturus erat. Reply Obj. 2: Moses seems to have slain the Egyptian by authority received as it were, by divine inspiration; this seems to follow from Acts 7:24, 25, where it is said that striking the Egyptian . . . he thought that his brethren understood that God by his hand would save Israel . Or it may be replied that Moses slew the Egyptian in order to defend the man who was unjustly attacked, without himself exceeding the limits of a blameless defense. Wherefore Ambrose says (De Offic. i, 36) that whoever does not ward off a blow from a fellow man when he can, is as much in fault as the striker; and he quotes the example of Moses. Again we may reply with Augustine (QQ. Exod. qu. 2) that just as the soil gives proof of its fertility by producing useless herbs before the useful seeds have grown, so this deed of Moses was sinful although it gave a sign of great fertility, in so far, to wit, as it was a sign of the power whereby he was to deliver his people. De Phinee autem dicendum est quod ex inspiratione divina, zelo Dei commotus, hoc fecit. Vel quia, licet nondum esset summus sacerdos, erat tamen filius summi sacerdotis, et ad eum hoc iudicium pertinebat, sicut et ad alios iudices, quibus hoc erat praeceptum. With regard to Phinees the reply is that he did this out of zeal for God by Divine inspiration; or because though not as yet high-priest, he was nevertheless the high-priest’s son, and this judgment was his concern as of the other judges, to whom this was commanded. Ad tertium dicendum quod potestas saecularis subditur spirituali sicut corpus animae. Et ideo non est usurpatum iudicium si spiritualis praelatus se intromittat de temporalibus quantum ad ea in quibus subditur ei saecularis potestas, vel quae ei a saeculari potestate relinquuntur. Reply Obj. 3: The secular power is subject to the spiritual, even as the body is subject to the soul. Consequently the judgment is not usurped if the spiritual authority interferes in those temporal matters that are subject to the spiritual authority or which have been committed to the spiritual by the temporal authority. Ad quartum dicendum quod habitus scientiae et iustitiae sunt perfectiones singularis personae, et ideo per eorum defectum non dicitur usurpatum iudicium, sicut per defectum publicae auctoritatis, ex qua iudicium vim coactivam habet. Reply Obj. 4: The habits of knowledge and justice are perfections of the individual, and consequently their absence does not make a judgment to be usurped, as in the absence of public authority which gives a judgment its coercive force. Quaestio 61 Question 61 De partibus iustitiae The Parts of Justice Deinde considerandum est de partibus iustitiae. Et primo, de partibus subiectivis, quae sunt species iustitiae, scilicet distributiva et commutativa; secundo, de partibus quasi integralibus; tertio, de partibus quasi potentialibus, scilicet de virtutibus adiunctis. Circa primum occurrit duplex consideratio, prima, de ipsis iustitiae partibus; secunda, de vitiis oppositis. Et quia restitutio videtur esse actus commutativae iustitiae, primo considerandum est de distinctione iustitiae commutativae et distributivae, secundo, de restitutione. We must now consider the parts of justice; (1) the subjective parts, which are the species of justice, i.e., distributive and commutative justice; (2) the quasi-integral parts; (3) the quasi-potential parts, i.e., the virtues connected with justice. The first consideration will be twofold: (1) The parts of justice; (2) their opposite vices. And since restitution would seem to be an act of commutative justice, we must consider (1) the distinction between commutative and distributive justice; (2) restitution. Circa primum quaeruntur quatuor. Under the first head there are four points of inquiry: Primo, utrum sint duae species iustitiae, iustitia distributiva et commutativa. (1) Whether there are two species of justice, viz. distributive and commutative? Secundo, utrum eodem modo in eis medium accipiatur. (2) Whether in either case the mean is take in the same way? Tertio, utrum sit earum uniformis vel multiplex materia. (3) Whether their matter is uniform or manifold? Quarto, utrum secundum aliquam earum specierum iustum sit idem quod contrapassum. (4) Whether in any of these species the just is the same as counter-passion? Articulus 1 Article 1