Articulus 6 Article 6 Utrum iudicium per usurpationem reddatur perversum Whether judgment is rendered perverse by being usurped? Ad sextum sic proceditur. Videtur quod iudicium per usurpationem non reddatur perversum. Iustitia enim est quaedam rectitudo in agendis. Sed nihil deperit veritati a quocumque dicatur, sed a quocumque est accipienda. Ergo etiam nihil deperit iustitiae, a quocumque iustum determinetur, quod pertinet ad rationem iudicii. Objection 1: It would seem that judgment is not rendered perverse by being usurped. For justice is rectitude in matters of action. Now truth is not impaired, no matter who tells it, but it may suffer from the person who ought to accept it. Therefore again justice loses nothing, no matter who declares what is just, and this is what is meant by judgment. Praeterea, peccata punire ad iudicium pertinet. Sed aliqui laudabiliter leguntur peccata punisse qui tamen auctoritatem non habebant super illos quos puniebant, sicut Moyses occidendo Aegyptium, ut habetur Exod. II; et Phinees, filius Eleazari, Zambri, filium Salomi, ut legitur Num. XXV, et reputatum est ei ad iustitiam, ut dicitur in Psalm. Ergo usurpatio iudicii non pertinet ad iniustitiam. Obj. 2: Further, it belongs to judgment to punish sins. Now it is related to the praise of some that they punished sins without having authority over those whom they punished; such as Moses in slaying the Egyptian (Exod 2:12), and Phinees the son of Eleazar in slaying Zambri the son of Salu (Num 25:7–14), and it was reputed to him unto justice (Ps 105:31). Therefore usurpation of judgment pertains not to injustice. Praeterea, potestas spiritualis distinguitur a temporali. Sed quandoque praelati habentes spiritualem potestatem intromittunt se de his quae pertinent ad potestatem saecularem. Ergo usurpatum iudicium non est illicitum. Obj. 3: Further, spiritual power is distinct from temporal. Now prelates having spiritual power sometimes interfere in matters concerning the secular power. Therefore usurped judgment is not unlawful. Praeterea, sicut ad recte iudicandum requiritur auctoritas, ita etiam et iustitia iudicantis et scientia, ut ex supradictis patet. Sed non dicitur iudicium esse iniustum si aliquis iudicet non habens habitum iustitiae, vel non habens scientiam iuris. Ergo neque etiam iudicium usurpatum, quod fit per defectum auctoritatis, semper erit iniustum. Obj. 4: Further, even as the judge requires authority in order to judge aright, so also does he need justice and knowledge, as shown above (A. 1, ad 1, 3; A. 2). But a judgment is not described as unjust, if he who judges lacks the habit of justice or the knowledge of the law. Neither therefore is it always unjust to judge by usurpation, i.e., without authority. Sed contra est quod dicitur Rom. XIV, tu quis es, qui iudicas alienum servum? On the contrary, It is written (Rom 14:4): Who art thou that judgest another man’s servant? Respondeo dicendum quod, cum iudicium sit ferendum secundum leges scriptas, ut dictum est, ille qui iudicium fert legis dictum quodammodo interpretatur, applicando ipsum ad particulare negotium. Cum autem eiusdem auctoritatis sit legem interpretari et legem condere, sicut lex condi non potest nisi publica auctoritate, ita nec iudicium ferri potest nisi publica auctoritate, quae quidem se extendit ad eos qui communitati subduntur. Et ideo sicut iniustum esset ut aliquis constringeret alium ad legem servandam quae non esset publica auctoritate sancita, ita etiam iniustum est si aliquis aliquem compellat ferre iudicium quod publica auctoritate non fertur. I answer that, Since judgment should be pronounced according to the written law, as stated above (A. 5), he that pronounces judgment, interprets, in a way, the letter of the law, by applying it to some particular case. Now since it belongs to the same authority to interpret and to make a law, just as a law cannot be made save by public authority, so neither can a judgment be pronounced except by public authority, which extends over those who are subject to the community. Wherefore even as it would be unjust for one man to force another to observe a law that was not approved by public authority, so too it is unjust, if a man compels another to submit to a judgment that is pronounced by other than the public authority. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod pronuntiatio veritatis non importat compulsionem ad hoc quod suscipiatur, sed liberum est unicuique eam recipere vel non recipere prout vult. Sed iudicium importat quandam impulsionem. Et ideo iniustum est quod aliquis iudicetur ab eo qui publicam auctoritatem non habet. Reply Obj. 1: When the truth is declared there is no obligation to accept it, and each one is free to receive it or not, as he wishes. On the other hand judgment implies an obligation, wherefore it is unjust for anyone to be judged by one who has no public authority. Ad secundum dicendum quod Moyses videtur Aegyptium occidisse quasi ex inspiratione divina auctoritatem adeptus, ut videtur per hoc quod dicitur Act. VII, quod, percusso Aegyptio, aestimabat Moyses intelligere fratres suos quoniam dominus per manum ipsius daret salutem Israel. Vel potest dici quod Moyses occidit Aegyptium defendendo eum qui iniuriam patiebatur cum moderamine inculpatae tutelae. Unde Ambrosius dicit, in libro de Offic., quod qui non repellit iniuriam a socio cum potest, tam est in vitio quam ille qui facit; et inducit exemplum Moysi. Vel potest dici, sicut dicit Augustinus, in quaestionibus Exod., quod sicut terra, ante utilia semina, herbarum inutilium fertilitate laudatur; sic illud Moysi factum vitiosum quidem fuit, sed magnae fertilitatis signum gerebat, inquantum scilicet erat signum virtutis eius qua populum liberaturus erat. Reply Obj. 2: Moses seems to have slain the Egyptian by authority received as it were, by divine inspiration; this seems to follow from Acts 7:24, 25, where it is said that striking the Egyptian . . . he thought that his brethren understood that God by his hand would save Israel . Or it may be replied that Moses slew the Egyptian in order to defend the man who was unjustly attacked, without himself exceeding the limits of a blameless defense. Wherefore Ambrose says (De Offic. i, 36) that whoever does not ward off a blow from a fellow man when he can, is as much in fault as the striker; and he quotes the example of Moses. Again we may reply with Augustine (QQ. Exod. qu. 2) that just as the soil gives proof of its fertility by producing useless herbs before the useful seeds have grown, so this deed of Moses was sinful although it gave a sign of great fertility, in so far, to wit, as it was a sign of the power whereby he was to deliver his people. De Phinee autem dicendum est quod ex inspiratione divina, zelo Dei commotus, hoc fecit. Vel quia, licet nondum esset summus sacerdos, erat tamen filius summi sacerdotis, et ad eum hoc iudicium pertinebat, sicut et ad alios iudices, quibus hoc erat praeceptum. With regard to Phinees the reply is that he did this out of zeal for God by Divine inspiration; or because though not as yet high-priest, he was nevertheless the high-priest’s son, and this judgment was his concern as of the other judges, to whom this was commanded. Ad tertium dicendum quod potestas saecularis subditur spirituali sicut corpus animae. Et ideo non est usurpatum iudicium si spiritualis praelatus se intromittat de temporalibus quantum ad ea in quibus subditur ei saecularis potestas, vel quae ei a saeculari potestate relinquuntur. Reply Obj. 3: The secular power is subject to the spiritual, even as the body is subject to the soul. Consequently the judgment is not usurped if the spiritual authority interferes in those temporal matters that are subject to the spiritual authority or which have been committed to the spiritual by the temporal authority. Ad quartum dicendum quod habitus scientiae et iustitiae sunt perfectiones singularis personae, et ideo per eorum defectum non dicitur usurpatum iudicium, sicut per defectum publicae auctoritatis, ex qua iudicium vim coactivam habet. Reply Obj. 4: The habits of knowledge and justice are perfections of the individual, and consequently their absence does not make a judgment to be usurped, as in the absence of public authority which gives a judgment its coercive force. Quaestio 61 Question 61 De partibus iustitiae The Parts of Justice Deinde considerandum est de partibus iustitiae. Et primo, de partibus subiectivis, quae sunt species iustitiae, scilicet distributiva et commutativa; secundo, de partibus quasi integralibus; tertio, de partibus quasi potentialibus, scilicet de virtutibus adiunctis. Circa primum occurrit duplex consideratio, prima, de ipsis iustitiae partibus; secunda, de vitiis oppositis. Et quia restitutio videtur esse actus commutativae iustitiae, primo considerandum est de distinctione iustitiae commutativae et distributivae, secundo, de restitutione. We must now consider the parts of justice; (1) the subjective parts, which are the species of justice, i.e., distributive and commutative justice; (2) the quasi-integral parts; (3) the quasi-potential parts, i.e., the virtues connected with justice. The first consideration will be twofold: (1) The parts of justice; (2) their opposite vices. And since restitution would seem to be an act of commutative justice, we must consider (1) the distinction between commutative and distributive justice; (2) restitution. Circa primum quaeruntur quatuor. Under the first head there are four points of inquiry: Primo, utrum sint duae species iustitiae, iustitia distributiva et commutativa. (1) Whether there are two species of justice, viz. distributive and commutative? Secundo, utrum eodem modo in eis medium accipiatur. (2) Whether in either case the mean is take in the same way? Tertio, utrum sit earum uniformis vel multiplex materia. (3) Whether their matter is uniform or manifold? Quarto, utrum secundum aliquam earum specierum iustum sit idem quod contrapassum. (4) Whether in any of these species the just is the same as counter-passion? Articulus 1 Article 1 Utrum convenienter ponatur duae species iustitiae, iustita distributiva et commutativa Whether two species of justice are suitably assigned, as commutative and distributive? Ad primum sic proceditur. Videtur quod inconvenienter ponantur duae species iustitiae, iustitia distributiva et commutativa. Non enim potest esse iustitiae species quod multitudini nocet, cum iustitia ad bonum commune ordinetur. Sed distribuere bona communia in multos nocet bono communi multitudinis, tum quia exhauriuntur opes communes; tum etiam quia mores hominum corrumpuntur; dicit enim Tullius, in libro de Offic., fit deterior qui accipit, et ad idem semper expectandum paratior. Ergo distributio non pertinet ad aliquam iustitiae speciem. Objection 1: It would seem that the two species of justice are unsuitably assigned, viz. distributive and commutative. That which is hurtful to the many cannot be a species of justice, since justice is directed to the common good. Now it is hurtful to the common good of the many, if the goods of the community are distributed among many, both because the goods of the community would be exhausted, and because the morals of men would be corrupted. For Tully says (De Offic. ii, 15): He who receives becomes worse, and the more ready to expect that he will receive again. Therefore distribution does not belong to any species of justice. Praeterea, iustitiae actus est reddere unicuique quod suum est, ut supra habitum est. Sed in distributione non redditur alicui quod suum erat, sed de novo appropriatur sibi id quod erat commune. Ergo hoc ad iustitiam non pertinet. Obj. 2: Further, the act of justice is to render to each one what is his own, as stated above (Q. 58, A. 2). But when things are distributed, a man does not receive what was his, but becomes possessed of something which belonged to the community. Therefore this does not pertain to justice. Praeterea, iustitia non solum est in principe, sed etiam in subiectis, ut supra habitum est. Sed distribuere semper pertinet ad principem. Ergo distributiva non pertinet ad iustitiam. Obj. 3: Further, justice is not only in the sovereign, but also in the subject, as stated above (Q. 58, A. 6). But it belongs exclusively to the sovereign to distribute. Therefore distribution does not always belong to justice. Praeterea, distributivum iustum est bonorum communium, ut dicitur in V Ethic. sed communia pertinent ad iustitiam legalem. Ergo iustitia distributiva non est species iustitiae particularis, sed iustitiae legalis. Obj. 4: Further, Distributive justice regards common goods (Ethic. v, 4). Now matters regarding the community pertain to legal justice. Therefore distributive justice is a part, not of particular, but of legal justice. Praeterea, unum et multa non diversificant speciem virtutis. Sed iustitia commutativa consistit in hoc quod aliquid redditur uni; iustitia vero distributiva in hoc quod aliquid datur multis. Ergo non sunt diversae species iustitiae. Obj. 5: Further, unity or multitude do not change the species of a virtue. Now commutative justice consists in rendering something to one person, while distributive justice consists in giving something to many. Therefore they are not different species of justice. Sed contra est quod philosophus, in V Ethic., ponit duas partes iustitiae, et dicit quod una est directiva in distributionibus, alia in commutationibus. On the contrary, The Philosopher assigns two parts to justice and says (Ethic. v, 2) that one directs distributions, the other, commutations. Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut dictum est, iustitia particularis ordinatur ad aliquam privatam personam, quae comparatur ad communitatem sicut pars ad totum. Potest autem ad aliquam partem duplex ordo attendi. Unus quidem partis ad partem, cui similis est ordo unius privatae personae ad aliam. Et hunc ordinem dirigit commutativa iustitia, quae consistit in his quae mutuo fiunt inter duas personas ad invicem. Alius ordo attenditur totius ad partes, et huic ordini assimilatur ordo eius quod est commune ad singulas personas. Quem quidem ordinem dirigit iustitia distributiva, quae est distributiva communium secundum proportionalitatem. Et ideo duae sunt iustitiae species, scilicet commutativa et distributiva. I answer that, As stated above (Q. 58, AA. 7, 8), particular justice is directed to the private individual, who is compared to the community as a part to the whole. Now a twofold order may be considered in relation to a part. In the first place there is the order of one part to another, to which corresponds the order of one private individual to another. This order is directed by commutative justice, which is concerned about the mutual dealings between two persons. In the second place there is the order of the whole towards the parts, to which corresponds the order of that which belongs to the community in relation to each single person. This order is directed by distributive justice, which distributes common goods proportionately. Hence there are two species of justice, distributive and commutative. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod sicut in largitionibus privatarum personarum commendatur moderatio, effusio vero culpatur; ita etiam in distributione communium bonorum est moderatio servanda, in quo dirigit iustitia distributiva. Reply Obj. 1: Just as a private individual is praised for moderation in his bounty, and blamed for excess therein, so too ought moderation to be observed in the distribution of common goods, wherein distributive justice directs. Ad secundum dicendum quod sicut pars et totum quodammodo sunt idem, ita id quod est totius quodammodo est partis. Et ita cum ex bonis communibus aliquid in singulos distribuitur, quilibet aliquo modo recipit quod suum est. Reply Obj. 2: Even as part and whole are somewhat the same, so too that which pertains to the whole, pertains somewhat to the part also: so that when the goods of the community are distributed among a number of individuals each one receives that which, in a way, is his own. Ad tertium dicendum quod actus distributionis quae est communium bonorum pertinet solum ad praesidentem communibus bonis, sed tamen iustitia distributiva est et in subditis, quibus distribuitur, inquantum scilicet sunt contenti iusta distributione. Quamvis etiam distributio quandoque fiat bonorum communium non quidem civitati, sed uni familiae, quorum distributio fieri potest auctoritate alicuius privatae personae. Reply Obj. 3: The act of distributing the goods of the community, belongs to none but those who exercise authority over those goods; and yet distributive justice is also in the subjects to whom those goods are distributed insofar as they are contented by a just distribution. Moreover distribution of common goods is sometimes made not to the state but to the members of a family, and such distribution can be made by authority of a private individual. Ad quartum dicendum quod motus accipiunt speciem a termino ad quem. Et ideo ad iustitiam legalem pertinet ordinare ea quae sunt privatarum personarum in bonum commune, sed ordinare e converso bonum commune ad personas particulares per distributionem est iustitiae particularis. Reply Obj. 4: Movement takes its species from the term whereunto. Hence it belongs to legal justice to direct to the common good those matters which concern private individuals: whereas on the contrary it belongs to particular justice to direct the common good to particular individuals by way of distribution. Ad quintum dicendum quod iustitia distributiva et commutativa non solum distinguuntur secundum unum et multa, sed secundum diversam rationem debiti, alio enim modo debetur alicui id quod est commune, alio modo id quod est proprium. Reply Obj. 5: Distributive and commutative justice differ not only in respect of unity and multitude, but also in respect of different kinds of due: because common property is due to an individual in one way, and his personal property in another way. Articulus 2 Article 2