Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut dictum est, in adoratione principalior est interior devotio mentis, secundarium autem est quod pertinet exterius ad corporalia signa. Mens autem interius apprehendit Deum quasi non comprehensum aliquo loco, sed corporalia signa necesse est quod in determinato loco et situ sint. Et ideo determinatio loci non requiritur ad adorationem principaliter, quasi sit de necessitate ipsius, sed secundum quandam decentiam, sicut et alia corporalia signa. I answer that, As stated above (A. 2), the chief part of adoration is the internal devotion of the mind, while the secondary part is something external pertaining to bodily signs. Now the mind internally apprehends God as not comprised in a place; while bodily signs must of necessity be in some definite place and position. Hence a definite place is required for adoration, not chiefly, as though it were essential thereto, but by reason of a certain fittingness, like other bodily signs. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod dominus per illa verba praenuntiat cessationem adorationis tam secundum ritum Iudaeorum adorantium in Ierusalem, quam etiam secundum ritum Samaritanorum adorantium in monte Garizim. Uterque enim ritus cessavit veniente spirituali Evangelii veritate, secundum quam in omni loco Deo sacrificatur, ut dicitur Malach. I. Reply Obj. 1: By these words our Lord foretold the cessation of adoration, both according to the rite of the Jews who adored in Jerusalem, and according to the rite of the Samaritans who adored on Mount Garizim. For both these rites ceased with the advent of the spiritual truth of the Gospel, according to which a sacrifice is offered to God in every place, as stated in Malach. 1:11. Ad secundum dicendum quod determinatus locus eligitur ad adorandum, non propter Deum, qui adoratur, quasi loco concludatur, sed propter ipsos adorantes. Et hoc triplici ratione. Primo quidem, propter loci consecrationem, ex qua spiritualem devotionem concipiunt orantes, ut magis exaudiantur, sicut patet ex adoratione Salomonis, III Reg. VIII. Secundo, propter sacra mysteria et alia sanctitatis signa quae ibi continentur. Tertio, propter concursum multorum adorantium, ex quo fit oratio magis exaudibilis, secundum illud Matth. XVIII, ubi sunt duo vel tres congregati in nomine meo, ibi sum ego in medio eorum. Reply Obj. 2: A definite place is chosen for adoration, not on account of God Who is adored, as though He were enclosed in a place, but on account of the adorers; and this for three reasons. First, because the place is consecrated, so that those who pray there conceive a greater devotion and are more likely to be heard, as may be seen in the prayer of Solomon (3 Kgs 8). Second, on account of the sacred mysteries and other signs of holiness contained therein. Third, on account of the concourse of many adorers, by reason of which their prayer is more likely to be heard, according to Matt. 18:20, Where there are two or three gathered together in My name, there am I in the midst of them. Ad tertium dicendum quod secundum quandam decentiam adoramus versus orientem. Primo quidem, propter divinae maiestatis indicium quod nobis manifestatur in motu caeli, qui est ab oriente secundo, propter Paradisum in oriente constitutum, ut legitur Gen. II, secundum litteram Septuaginta, quasi quaeramus ad Paradisum redire. Tertio, propter Christum, qui est lux mundi et oriens nominatur, Zach. VI; et qui ascendit super caelum caeli ad orientem; et ab oriente etiam expectatur venturus, secundum illud Matth. XXIV, sicut fulgur exit ab oriente et paret usque ad occidentem, ita erit adventus filii hominis. Reply Obj. 3: There is a certain fittingness in adoring towards the east. First, because the Divine majesty is indicated in the movement of the heavens which is from the east. Second, because Paradise was situated in the east according to the Septuagint version of Gen. 2:8, and so we signify our desire to return to Paradise. Third, on account of Christ Who is the light of the world, and is called the Orient (Zech 6:12); Who mounteth above the heaven of heavens to the east (Ps 67:34), and is expected to come from the east, according to Matt. 24:27, As lightning cometh out of the east, and appeareth even into the west; so shall also the coming of the Son of Man be. Quaestio 85 Question 85 De sacrificiis Sacrifices Deinde considerandum est de actibus quibus aliquae res exteriores Deo offeruntur. Circa quos occurrit duplex consideratio, primo quidem, de his quae Deo a fidelibus dantur; secundo, de votis, quibus ei aliqua promittuntur. In due sequence we must consider those acts whereby external things are offered to God. These give rise to a twofold consideration: (1) Of things given to God by the faithful; (2) Of vows, whereby something is promised to Him. Circa primum, considerandum est de sacrificiis, oblationibus, primitiis et decimis. Circa sacrificia quaeruntur quatuor. Under the first head we shall consider sacrifices, oblations, first-fruits, and tithes. About sacrifices there are four points of inquiry: Primo, utrum offerre Deo sacrificium sit de lege naturae. (1) Whether offering a sacrifice to God is of the law of nature? Secundo, utrum soli Deo sit sacrificium offerendum. (2) Whether sacrifice should be offered to God alone? Tertio, utrum offerre sacrificium sit specialis actus virtutis. (3) Whether the offering of a sacrifice is a special act of virtue? Quarto, utrum omnes teneantur ad sacrificium offerendum. (4) Whether all are bound to offer sacrifice? Articulus 1 Article 1 Utrum offerre sacrificium Deo sit de lege naturae Whether offering a sacrifice to God is of the law of nature? Ad primum sic proceditur. Videtur quod offerre sacrificium Deo non sit de lege naturae. Ea enim quae sunt iuris naturalis communia sunt apud omnes. Non autem hoc contingit circa sacrificia, nam quidam leguntur obtulisse in sacrificium panem et vinum, sicut de Melchisedech dicitur, Gen. XIV; et quidam haec, quidam illa animalia. Ergo oblatio sacrificiorum non est de iure naturali. Objection 1: It would seem that offering a sacrifice to God is not of the natural law. Things that are of the natural law are common among all men. Yet this is not the case with sacrifices: for we read of some, e.g., Melchisedech (Gen 14:18), offering bread and wine in sacrifice, and of certain animals being offered by some, and others by others. Therefore the offering of sacrifices is not of the natural law. Praeterea, ea quae sunt iuris naturalis omnes iusti servaverunt. Sed non legitur de Isaac quod sacrificium obtulerit, neque etiam de Adam, de quo tamen dicitur, Sap. X, quod sapientia eduxit eum a delicto suo. Ergo oblatio sacrificii non est de iure naturali. Obj. 2: Further, things that are of the natural law were observed by all just men. Yet we do not read that Isaac offered sacrifice; nor that Adam did so, of whom nevertheless it is written (Wis 10:2) that wisdom brought him out of his sin. Therefore the offering of sacrifice is not of the natural law. Praeterea, Augustinus dicit, X de Civ. Dei, quod sacrificia in quadam significantia offeruntur. Voces autem, quae sunt praecipua inter signa, sicut idem dicit, in libro de Doct. Christ., non significant naturaliter, sed ad placitum, secundum Philosophum. Ergo sacrificia non sunt de lege naturali. Obj. 3: Further, Augustine says (De Civ. Dei x, 5, 19) that sacrifices are offered in signification of something. Now words which are chief among signs, as he again says (De Doctr. Christ. ii, 3), signify, not by nature but by convention, according to the Philosopher (Peri Herm. i, 2). Therefore sacrifices are not of the natural law. Sed contra est quod in qualibet aetate, et apud quaslibet hominum nationes, semper fuit aliqua sacrificiorum oblatio. Quod autem est apud omnes, videtur naturale esse. Ergo et oblatio sacrificii est de iure naturali. On the contrary, At all times and among all nations there has always been the offering of sacrifices. Now that which is observed by all is seemingly natural. Therefore the offering of sacrifices is of the natural law. Respondeo dicendum quod naturalis ratio dictat homini quod alicui superiori subdatur, propter defectus quos in seipso sentit, in quibus ab aliquo superiori eget adiuvari et dirigi. Et quidquid illud sit, hoc est quod apud omnes dicitur Deus. Sicut autem in rebus naturalibus naturaliter inferiora superioribus subduntur, ita etiam naturalis ratio dictat homini secundum naturalem inclinationem ut ei quod est supra hominem subiectionem et honorem exhibeat secundum suum modum. Est autem modus conveniens homini ut sensibilibus signis utatur ad aliqua exprimenda, quia ex sensibilibus cognitionem accipit. Et ideo ex naturali ratione procedit quod homo quibusdam sensibilibus rebus utatur offerens eas Deo, in signum debitae subiectionis et honoris, secundum similitudinem eorum qui dominis suis aliqua offerunt in recognitionem dominii. Hoc autem pertinet ad rationem sacrificii. Et ideo oblatio sacrificii pertinet ad ius naturale. I answer that, Natural reason tells man that he is subject to a higher being, on account of the defects which he perceives in himself, and in which he needs help and direction from someone above him: and whatever this superior being may be, it is known to all under the name of God. Now just as in natural things the lower are naturally subject to the higher, so too it is a dictate of natural reason in accordance with man’s natural inclination that he should tender submission and honor, according to his mode, to that which is above man. Now the mode befitting to man is that he should employ sensible signs in order to signify anything, because he derives his knowledge from sensibles. Hence it is a dictate of natural reason that man should use certain sensibles, by offering them to God in sign of the subjection and honor due to Him, like those who make certain offerings to their lord in recognition of his authority. Now this is what we mean by a sacrifice, and consequently the offering of sacrifice is of the natural law. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod, sicut supra dictum est, aliqua in communi sunt de iure naturali quorum determinationes sunt de iure positivo, sicut quod malefactores puniantur habet lex naturalis, sed quod tali poena vel tali puniantur est ex institutione divina vel humana. Similiter etiam oblatio sacrificii in communi est de lege naturae, et ideo in hoc omnes conveniunt. Sed determinatio sacrificiorum est ex institutione humana vel divina, et ideo in hoc differunt. Reply Obj. 1: As stated above (I-II, Q. 95, A. 2), certain things belong generically to the natural law, while their determination belongs to the positive law; thus the natural law requires that evildoers should be punished; but that this or that punishment should be inflicted on them is a matter determined by God or by man. In like manner the offering of sacrifice belongs generically to the natural law, and consequently all are agreed on this point, but the determination of sacrifices is established by God or by man, and this is the reason for their difference. Ad secundum dicendum quod Adam et Isaac, sicut et alii iusti, Deo sacrificium obtulerunt secundum sui temporis congruentiam, ut patet per Gregorium, qui dicit quod apud antiquos per sacrificiorum oblationes remittebatur pueris originale peccatum. Non tamen de omnibus iustorum sacrificiis fit mentio in Scriptura, sed solum de illis circa quae aliquid speciale accidit. Potest tamen esse ratio quare Adam non legitur sacrificium obtulisse, ne, quia in ipso notatur origo peccati, simul etiam in eo sanctificationis origo significaretur. Isaac vero significavit Christum inquantum ipse oblatus est in sacrificium. Unde non oportebat ut significaret quasi sacrificium offerens. Reply Obj. 2: Adam, Isaac and other just men offered sacrifice to God in a manner befitting the times in which they lived, according to Gregory, who says (Moral. iv, 3) that in olden times original sin was remitted through the offering of sacrifices. Nor does Scripture mention all the sacrifices of the just, but only those that have something special connected with them. Perhaps the reason why we read of no sacrifice being offered by Adam may be that, as the origin of sin is ascribed to him, the origin of sanctification ought not to be represented as typified in him. Isaac was a type of Christ, being himself offered in sacrifice; and so there was no need that he should be represented as offering a sacrifice. Ad tertium dicendum quod significare conceptus suos est homini naturale, sed determinatio signorum est secundum humanum placitum. Reply Obj. 3: It is natural to man to express his ideas by signs, but the determination of those signs depends on man’s pleasure. Articulus 2 Article 2 Utrum soli summo Deo sit sacrificium offerendum Whether sacrifice should be offered to the most high God alone? Ad secundum sic proceditur. Videtur quod non soli summo Deo sit sacrificium offerendum. Cum enim sacrificium Deo offerri debeat, videtur quod omnibus illis sit sacrificium offerendum qui divinitatis consortes fiunt. Sed etiam sancti homines efficiuntur divinae naturae consortes, ut dicitur II Petri I, unde et de eis in Psalm. dicitur, ego dixi, dii estis. Angeli etiam filii Dei nominantur, ut patet Iob I. Ergo omnibus his debet sacrificium offerri. Objection 1: It would seem that sacrifice should not be offered to the most high God alone. Since sacrifice ought to be offered to God, it would seem that it ought to be offered to all such as are partakers of the Godhead. Now holy men are made partakers of the Divine nature, according to 2 Pet. 1:4; wherefore of them is it written (Ps 81:6): I have said, You are gods: and angels too are called sons of God, according to Job 1:6. Thus sacrifice should be offered to all these. Praeterea, quanto aliquis maior est, tanto ei maior honor debet exhiberi. Sed Angeli et sancti sunt multo maiores quibuscumque terrenis principibus, quibus tamen eorum subditi multo maiorem honorem impendunt, se coram eis prosternentes et munera offerentes, quam sit oblatio alicuius animalis vel rei alterius in sacrificium. Ergo multo magis Angelis et sanctis potest sacrificium offerri. Obj. 2: Further, the greater a person is the greater the honor due to him from man. Now the angels and saints are far greater than any earthly princes: and yet the subjects of the latter pay them much greater honor, by prostrating before them, and offering them gifts, than is implied by offering an animal or any other thing in sacrifice. Much more therefore may one offer sacrifice to the angels and saints. Praeterea, templa et altaria instituuntur ad sacrificia offerenda. Sed templa et altaria instituuntur Angelis et sanctis. Ergo etiam sacrificia possunt eis offerri. Obj. 3: Further, temples and altars are raised for the offering of sacrifices. Yet temples and altars are raised to angels and saints. Therefore sacrifices also may be offered to them. Sed contra est quod dicitur Exod. XXII, qui immolat diis, occidetur, praeter domino soli. On the contrary, It is written (Exod 22:20): He that sacrificeth to gods shall be put to death, save only to the Lord. Respondeo dicendum quod, sicut dictum est, oblatio sacrificii fit ad aliquid significandum. Significat autem sacrificium quod offertur exterius, interius spirituale sacrificium, quo anima seipsam offert Deo, secundum illud Psalm., sacrificium Deo spiritus contribulatus, quia, sicut supra dictum est, exteriores actus religionis ad interiores ordinantur. Anima autem se offert Deo in sacrificium sicut principio suae creationis et sicut fini suae beatificationis. Secundum autem veram fidem solus Deus est creator animarum nostrarum, ut in primo habitum est. In solo etiam eo animae nostrae beatitudo consistit, ut supra dictum est. Et ideo sicut soli Deo summo debemus sacrificium spirituale offerre, ita etiam soli ei debemus offerre exteriora sacrificia, sicut etiam, orantes atque laudantes, ad eum dirigimus significantes voces cui res ipsas in corde quas significamus, offerimus, ut Augustinus dicit, X de Civ. Dei. Hoc etiam videmus in omni republica observari, quod summum rectorem aliquo signo singulari honorant, quod cuicumque alteri deferretur, esset crimen laesae maiestatis. Et ideo in lege divina statuitur poena mortis his qui divinum honorem aliis exhibent. I answer that, As stated above (A. 1), a sacrifice is offered in order that something may be represented. Now the sacrifice that is offered outwardly represents the inward spiritual sacrifice, whereby the soul offers itself to God according to Ps. 50:19, A sacrifice to God is an afflicted spirit, since, as stated above (Q. 81, A. 7; Q. 84, A. 2), the outward acts of religion are directed to the inward acts. Again the soul offers itself in sacrifice to God as its beginning by creation, and its end by beatification: and according to the true faith God alone is the creator of our souls, as stated in the First Part (QQ. 90, A. 3; 118, A. 2), while in Him alone the beatitude of our soul consists, as stated above (I-II, Q. 1, A. 8; Q. 2, A. 8; Q. 3, AA. 1, 7, 8). Wherefore just as to God alone ought we to offer spiritual sacrifice, so too ought we to offer outward sacrifices to Him alone: even so in our prayers and praises we proffer significant words to Him to Whom in our hearts we offer the things which we designate thereby, as Augustine states (De Civ. Dei x, 19). Moreover we find that in every country the people are wont to show the sovereign ruler some special sign of honor, and that if this be shown to anyone else, it is a crime of high-treason. Therefore, in the Divine law, the death punishment is assigned to those who offer Divine honor to another than God. Ad primum ergo dicendum quod nomen divinitatis communicatur aliquibus non per aequalitatem, sed per participationem. Et ideo nec aequalis honor eis debetur. Reply Obj. 1: The name of the Godhead is communicated to certain ones, not equally with God, but by participation; hence neither is equal honor due to them. Ad secundum dicendum quod in oblatione sacrificii non pensatur pretium occisi pecoris, sed significatio, qua hoc fit in honorem summi rectoris totius universi. Unde, sicut Augustinus dicit, X de Civ. Dei, Daemones non cadaverinis nidoribus, sed divinis honoribus gaudent. Reply Obj. 2: The offering of a sacrifice is measured not by the value of the animal killed, but by its signification, for it is done in honor of the sovereign Ruler of the whole universe. Wherefore, as Augustine says (De Civ. Dei x, 19), the demons rejoice, not in the stench of corpses, but in receiving divine honors. Ad tertium dicendum quod, sicut Augustinus dicit, VIII de Civ. Dei, non constituimus martyribus templa, sacerdotia, quoniam non ipsi, sed Deus eorum nobis est Deus. Unde sacerdos non dicit, offero tibi sacrificium, Petre, vel Paule. Sed Deo de illorum victoriis gratias agimus, et nos ad imitationem eorum adhortamur. Reply Obj. 3: As Augustine says (De Civ. Dei viii, 19), we do not raise temples and priesthoods to the martyrs, because not they but their God is our God. Wherefore the priest says not: I offer sacrifice to thee, Peter or Paul. But we give thanks to God for their triumphs, and urge ourselves to imitate them. Articulus 3 Article 3 Utrum oblatio sacrificii sit specialis actus virtutis Whether the offering of sacrifice is a special act of virtue? Ad tertium sic proceditur. Videtur quod oblatio sacrificii non sit specialis actus virtutis. Dicit enim Augustinus, X de Civ. Dei, verum sacrificium est omne opus quod agitur ut sancta societate inhaereamus Deo. Sed omne opus bonum non est specialis actus alicuius determinatae virtutis. Ergo oblatio sacrificii non est specialis actus determinatae virtutis. Objection 1: It would seem that the offering of sacrifice is not a special act of virtue. Augustine says (De Civ. Dei x, 6): A true sacrifice is any work done that we may cleave to God in holy fellowship. But not every good work is a special act of some definite virtue. Therefore the offering of sacrifice is not a special act of a definite virtue. Praeterea, maceratio corporis quae fit per ieiunium, pertinet ad abstinentiam; quae autem fit per continentiam, pertinet ad castitatem; quae autem est in martyrio, pertinet ad fortitudinem. Quae omnia videntur comprehendi sub sacrificii oblatione, secundum illud Rom. XII, exhibeatis corpora vestra hostiam viventem. Dicit etiam apostolus, ad Heb. ult., beneficentiae et communionis nolite oblivisci, talibus enim hostiis promeretur Deus, beneficentia autem et communio pertinent ad caritatem, misericordiam et liberalitatem. Ergo sacrificii oblatio non est specialis actus determinatae virtutis. Obj. 2: Further, the mortification of the body by fasting belongs to abstinence, by continence belongs to chastity, by martyrdom belongs to fortitude. Now all these things seem to be comprised in the offering of sacrifice, according to Rom. 12:1, Present your bodies a living sacrifice. Again the Apostle says (Heb 13:16): Do not forget to do good and to impart, for by such sacrifices God’s favor is obtained. Now it belongs to charity, mercy and liberality to do good and to impart. Therefore the offering of sacrifice is not a special act of a definite virtue.